The punishment of the grave. That all persons whether believers or not, undergo some punishment in their graves, is a fundamental article of the Muslim belief. These punishments are described in the following Hadis, on the authority of Abu Hurairah
"The Prophet of God said, - When a corpse is placed in its grave, two black angels come to it, with blue eyes. The name of the one is Munkur and of the other Nakir, and they interrogate the dead person concerning the Prophet of God. If he be a Muslim, he will bear witness to the Unity of God and the mission of Muhammad. The angels will then say, -We knew thou wouldst say so; and the grave will thee; expand seventy times seventy yards in length, and seventy times seventy in breath. A light will then be given for the grave, and it will be said, 'Sleep.' Then the dead person will say,' Shall I return to my brethren and inform them of this?' Then the angels will say, 'Sleep like the bridegroom, till God shall raise thee up from the grave on the Day of Resurrection.' But if the corpse be that of an unbeliever, it will he asked, 'What sayest thou about the Prophet?' and he will reply, 'I know him not.' And then the angels will say, 'We knew thou wouldst way so.' Then the ground will be ordered to close in upon him, and it will break his sides, and turn the right side to his left, and he will suffer perpetual punishment till God raise him therefrom.' In another tradition, recorded by 'Anas, it is said, 'The wicked will be struck with a rod (mitraqah), and they will roar out and their cries will be heard by all animals that may be near the grave exceptinsg man and the genii." (Mishkat. book i., c.v.).
All Muhammadan doctors of the orthodox schools (whether we apply the term orthodox to Sunni or Shi'ah) believe in the literal interpretation of these punishments in the grave, which are said to take place as soon as the party has left the grave-yard. A perusal of the various traditions on the subject must convince any unprejudiced mind that Muhammad intended to teach a literal interpretation of his sayings on this subject. It is related that on one occasion, when the Prophet was riding through a grave-yard, his mule, hearing the groans or the dead, tried to throw his master. On that occasion, Muhammad said, "If I were not afraid that you would leave off burying, I would ask God to give you the power of hearing what I hear." Shaikh, 'Abdu 'l-Haqq, in his commentary on the Mischkat, says, "The accounts which are here given of the punishment of the grave are undoubtedly true, and they are not either imaginary or figurative." (Mishkat, book i., chap. v.; See Persian edition with 'Abdu 'l- Haqq's commentary.)
Friday, February 26, 2010
AYYAMU'T TASHRIQ
The three days after the feast of sacrifice at Mini during the Pilgrimage. So called because the flesh of the victim is then dried, or because they are not slain until after sun-rise. [HAJJ, PILGRIMAGE]
AYYAMU'L-BIZ
"The days of the bright nights'." mentioned in the Miskat (book vii. c.7, part 3). as days one which Muhammad did not eat, whether halting or marching. They are the 13th, 14th, and 15th nights of the month. (See Lane's Dict., p. 284).
AYISHAH
The daughter of Abu Bakr, and the favorite wife at Muhammad to whom she was married when only nine years of age. She survived her husbasnd many years, and died at al-Madinah A.H. 58. (A.D. 678), aged sixty-seven, and obtained the title of Ummu 'l-Mu'minin, "The Mother of the Believers".
Friday, February 19, 2010
AYIMMATU'L-ASMA
"The leading names." The seven principal names or titles of God. Namely: -
Al-Hagy - The Loving.
Al-Mim - The Knowing.
Al–Murid - The Purposer.
Al- Qache - The Powerful.
As-Samr - The Hearer.
Al-Basir - The Seer.
Al- Mutukullim - The Speaker.
Al-Hagy - The Loving.
Al-Mim - The Knowing.
Al–Murid - The Purposer.
Al- Qache - The Powerful.
As-Samr - The Hearer.
Al-Basir - The Seer.
Al- Mutukullim - The Speaker.
A'YATU'L-MAWARIS
"The verse of inheritances." The twelfth verse of the Suratu 'n-nisa, or fortieth chapter of the Qur'an. It relates to inheritance, and is the foundation of the Muslim law on the subject. It is given in the article on inheritance. [INHERITANCE]
AYATU 'L-KURSI
"The verse of the throne." Verse 256 of the Suratu 'l-Baqarah, or chap. ii. of the Qur'an. It is related (Mishkat book iv, c xix, part III), that 'Ali heard Muhammad say in the pulpit. "that person who repeats the Ayatu'l-Kursi after every prayer, nothing prevents him entering into Paradise but life; and whoever says it when he goes to his bed-chamber, God will keep him in safety, together with his house and the house of his neighbor. The verse is as follows: -- "God! There is no God but he; the Living, the Abiding. Neither slumber seizeth Him, nor sleep. To Him belongeth whatsoever is in heaven and whatsoever is in earth. Who is he that can intercede with Him but by His own permission? He knoweth what hath been before them and what shall be after them : yet nought of his knowledge do they comprehend, save what He willeth. His THRONE reacheth over the heavens and the earth, and the upholding of both burdeneth Him not ; and He is the High the Great."
Tuesday, February 16, 2010
AYATU 'L-HINZ
"The verse of protection" Certain verses of the Qur'an which are usually inscribed on amulets. They are:-Surah ii, 256, "And the preservation of both (heaven and earth) is no burden unto Him": Surah xii. 64, "God is the best protector". Surah xiii, 12. "They guard him by the command of God." Surah xv, 17. "We guard him from every devil driven away by stones" Surah xxxvii. 7, "A protector against every rebellious devil".
AYATU 'L-FATH
Lit. "The verse of victory." The fifty-ninth verse of the Suratu 'l-An'am (vi.) of the Qur'an. The powers of this verse are said to be so great, that if a person constantly recite it he will obtain his desires. It is generally recited with this object forty times after each season of prayer. It is as follows: - "And with Him are the keys of the secret things; none knoweth whatever is on the land and in the sea; and no leaf falleth but he knoweth it; neither is there a grain in the darkness of the earth, not a green thing nor a dry thing, but it is noted in a clear book."
Monday, February 15, 2010
AL-A'YANU 'S-SABITAH
pl. of ayn, in the sense of "the essence" of a thing. The established essences. A term used by the Sufi mystics to express figures emblenatic of the names of God. ('Abdu 'r-Razzaq's Dictionary of Technical Terms of the Sufis, Sprenger's edition.)
AYAH
Lit. "a sign or miracle." The term used for one of the smaller portions of the chapters of the Qur'an which we call verses. The number of verses is often set down after the title of the chapter, but the verses are not marked in the text as they are in our English Bibles. The number of verses in the Qur'an is variously estimated, but they are generally said to be about six thousand and two hundred. [QUR'AN.]
AVENGER OF BLOOD
In the Muhammadan Law, as in the Jewish, the punishment for wilful murder is left to the next of kin; but in the Jewish code the avenger of blood was compelled to take the life of the murder whilst in the Muslim code he may accept compensation, vide Qur'an Surah ii. 173, "O believers; retaliation (Qisas for blood-shedding is prescribed to you; the free man for the free, and the slave for the slave, and the woman for the woman; but he to whom his brother shall make any remission is to be dealt with equitably; and a payment should be made to him with liberality. This is a relaxation (i.e. of the stricter lex talionis) from your Lord, and a mercy." [QISAS.]
A'UZU BILLAH
Another name for the Ta'auwuz., or the prayer in the daily liturgy : "I seek refuge with God from the cursed Satan." [PRAYER.]
AUTAD
Lit. "props or pillars." - A term used by the Sufis for the four saints by whom the four corners of the world are said to be supported.
Thursday, February 11, 2010
AULIYA
pl. of wali.
"Favourites of God." The expression occurs in the Quran in tue following verse. "Are not the favourites of God those on whom no fear shall come, nor shall they be put to grief?" (Surah x. 63).
"Favourites of God." The expression occurs in the Quran in tue following verse. "Are not the favourites of God those on whom no fear shall come, nor shall they be put to grief?" (Surah x. 63).
Wednesday, February 10, 2010
AT-TAHIYAT
Lit. "the greetings." A part of the stated prayers, recited after the Takbiru 'l-Qurud, after every two rak'ahs. It is recited whilst the worshipper kneels upon the ground. His left foot bent under him, he sits upon it and places his hands upon his knees and says: - "The adorations (i.e. at-tahiyatu of the tongue are for God, and also of the body and of alms giving. Peace be on thee, O Prophet, with the mercy of God and His blessing. Peace be upon us, and upon God's righteous servants." (Mishkat, iv., c. xvi) [PRAYER.]
ATIRAH
The sacrifice offered by the idolatrous Arabs in the month of Rajab. It was allowed by the Prophet at the commencement of his mission, but was afterwards abolished. Mishkat, book iv., c. 50, "Let there be no Fara' nor 'Atirah".
Monday, February 8, 2010
ASWAD
An impostor who, in the time of Muhammad, claimed the prophetic office. His name was 'Aihalah ibn Ka'b, and he belonged to the tribe of 'Aus, of which he was an influential chief He was surnamed Zu 'l-Himar, or "The Master of the Ass," (But another reading is Zu 'l-Khimar or, "He with the veil.") because he used frequently to say, "The master of the ass is coming unto me," and pretended to receive his revelations from two angels named Suhaik and Shuraik: Being good hand at legeidemain, and having a smooth tongue, he gained mightily on the multitude by the strange feats which he shewed them, and the eloquence of his discourse. By these means he greatly increased his power, and having made himself master of Najran and the territory of Taif, on the death of Badhan, the governor of Yaman for Muhammad he seized that province also, killing Shahr, the son of Hadhan, and taking to wife his widow Azad whose father he had also slain. The news being brought to Muhammad, he sent to his friends and to the tribe of Hamdan, a party of whom conspiring with Qais ibn 'Abd Yaghuth, who bore Aswad a grudge, and with Firuz and Aswad's wife, broke by night into his house, where Firuz surprised him and cut off his head. While dying, it said that he roared like a bull, at which his guards came to the chamber door, but were sent away by his wife, who told them that the prophet was only agitated by the divine inspiration. This was done the very night before Muhammad died. The next morning the conspirators caused the following proclamation to be made viz. "I bear witness that Muhammad is the Apostle of God, and that 'Aihala is a liar"; and letters were immediately sent away to Muhammad, with an account of what had been done; but a messenger from heaven outstripped them and acquainted the prophet with the news, what he imparted to his Companions a little before his death, the letters themselves not arriving till Abu Bakr was chosen Khalif. It is said that Muhammad on his occasion told those who attended him that before the Day of Judgment thirty more imposters, besides Musailimah and Aswad, should appear. The whole time from the beginning of Aswad's rebellion to his death was four months.
ASTROLOGY
Arabic 'Ilmu 'n-nujum. Qatidah says, referring to the Qur'an, 'that God has created stars for three uses: (1) as an ornament to the heavens (Surah lxvii 5); (2) to stone the Devil with (Surah lxvii. 5); and (3) to direct travellers through the forests and on the sea (Surah. xv. 16). Muhammad condemns those who study the stars for any other purposes (Mishkat, xxi, c iii pt. iii.), and consequently the science of Astrology is not considered lawful in Islam.
ASS
According to the Imam Abu Hanifah, the ass is an unclean animal, and its flesh and milk are unlawful; nor is zakat to be given on an ass. (Hamilton's Hidayah, vol. i. 16, iv. 74, 86)
ASL
Cause, first principle. foundation. Asl-wafar', "Cause and effect." "fundamental and derivative principal"
ASIYAH
The wife of Pharaoh. One, of the four perfect women (the Virgin Mary, Khadijah, and Fatimah, being the other three). See Mishkatu 'l-Masabih, xxiv c. 22. She is mentioned in the Qur'an (Sura lxvi. 11): "And God striketh out a parable for those who believe: the wife of Pharaoh, when she said, 'My Lord, build for me a house with Thee in Paradise, and save me from Pharaoh and his works, and save me from the unjust people."
'ASHURA
Lit. "the tenth" A voluntary fast day, observed on the tenth of the month of Muharram it is related that Muhammad observed it, and said it was a day respected by Jews and Christians (Mishkat. vii. vol. I.)
It is the only day of Muharram observed by the Sunni Muslims, being the day on which it is said God created Adam and Eve, heaven and hell, the tablet of decrees, the pen, life, and death. It is kept by the Sunnis as a fast. [MUHARRAM]
It is the only day of Muharram observed by the Sunni Muslims, being the day on which it is said God created Adam and Eve, heaven and hell, the tablet of decrees, the pen, life, and death. It is kept by the Sunnis as a fast. [MUHARRAM]
Friday, February 5, 2010
AL-ASH'ARIYAH
A sect formed by Abu l-Hasan 'Ali ibn Isma'il al-Ash'ari. born A.H. 260 (A.D. 873-4).
They hold that the attributes of God are distinct from His essence, yet in such a way as to forbid any comparison being made, between God and ins creatures. They say they are not "'ain nor gihair:", not of His essence, nor distinct from it: i.e. they cannot be compared with any other things. They also hold that God has one eternal will, from which proceed all things, the good and the evil, the useful and the hurtful. The destiny of man was written on the eternal table before the world was created. So far they go with the Sifatis, but in order to preserve the moral responsibility of man they say that he has power to convert will into action. But this power cannot create anything new, for then God's sovereignty would be impaired; so they say that God in His providence so orders matters that whenever "a man desires to do a certain thing, good or bad, the action corresponding to the desire is, there and then, created by God, and, as it were, fitted on to the desire." Thus it seems as if it can't naturally from the will of the man whereas it does not. This action is called Kasb (acquisition), because it is acquired by a special creative act of God. It is an act directed to the obtaining of profit or the removing of injury the term is therefore in applicable to the Deity. Abu Bakr al-Bakil' Iani, a disciple of a1-Asli'ari, says: 'The essence or substance of the action is the effect of the power of God, but its being an action of obedience, such as prayer, or an action of disobedience, such as fornication, are qualities of the action, which proceed from the power of man." The Imam Al- Haramain (A.H. 419-478) held "that the actions of men were effected by the power which God has created in man." Abu Ishaq al-Isfariyini says: "That which maketh impression or hath influence on action, is a compound of the power of God and the power of man." They also believe that the word of God is eternal, though they acknowledge that the vocal sounds used in the Qur'an, which are the manifestation of that word, are created. They say. in short, that the Qur'an contains (1) the eternal word which existed in the essence of God before time was; and (2) the word which consists of sounds and combinations of letters. The last they call the created word.
Thus Al-Ash'ari traversed the main positions of the Mutazilites, denying that man can, by the aid of his reason alone, rise to the knowledge of good and evil. He must exercise no judgment, but accept all that is revealed. He has no right to apply the moral laws which affect men, to the actions of God. It cannot be asserted by the human reason that the good will he rewarded or the bad punished in a future world. Man must always approach God as a slave, in whom there is no light or knowledge to judge of the actions of the Supreme. Whether God will accept the penitent sinner or not cannot be asserted, for He is an absolute Sovereign, above all law. (Sale, from Ibn Khaldun; Die Mu'taziliten oder die Freidenker in Islam, von H. Steiner. 1865: Zur-Geschichte Abu'l-Hasan al-ash'arish, von W. Spitta, 1876: De Strijd over het Dogma in den Islam tot op El-ash'ari, door Dr,M. Th. Houtsma, Leiden, 1875; and Exposen de la Refore de l'Islamisme, by M.A.F. Mehren Leiden, 1878.)
They hold that the attributes of God are distinct from His essence, yet in such a way as to forbid any comparison being made, between God and ins creatures. They say they are not "'ain nor gihair:", not of His essence, nor distinct from it: i.e. they cannot be compared with any other things. They also hold that God has one eternal will, from which proceed all things, the good and the evil, the useful and the hurtful. The destiny of man was written on the eternal table before the world was created. So far they go with the Sifatis, but in order to preserve the moral responsibility of man they say that he has power to convert will into action. But this power cannot create anything new, for then God's sovereignty would be impaired; so they say that God in His providence so orders matters that whenever "a man desires to do a certain thing, good or bad, the action corresponding to the desire is, there and then, created by God, and, as it were, fitted on to the desire." Thus it seems as if it can't naturally from the will of the man whereas it does not. This action is called Kasb (acquisition), because it is acquired by a special creative act of God. It is an act directed to the obtaining of profit or the removing of injury the term is therefore in applicable to the Deity. Abu Bakr al-Bakil' Iani, a disciple of a1-Asli'ari, says: 'The essence or substance of the action is the effect of the power of God, but its being an action of obedience, such as prayer, or an action of disobedience, such as fornication, are qualities of the action, which proceed from the power of man." The Imam Al- Haramain (A.H. 419-478) held "that the actions of men were effected by the power which God has created in man." Abu Ishaq al-Isfariyini says: "That which maketh impression or hath influence on action, is a compound of the power of God and the power of man." They also believe that the word of God is eternal, though they acknowledge that the vocal sounds used in the Qur'an, which are the manifestation of that word, are created. They say. in short, that the Qur'an contains (1) the eternal word which existed in the essence of God before time was; and (2) the word which consists of sounds and combinations of letters. The last they call the created word.
Thus Al-Ash'ari traversed the main positions of the Mutazilites, denying that man can, by the aid of his reason alone, rise to the knowledge of good and evil. He must exercise no judgment, but accept all that is revealed. He has no right to apply the moral laws which affect men, to the actions of God. It cannot be asserted by the human reason that the good will he rewarded or the bad punished in a future world. Man must always approach God as a slave, in whom there is no light or knowledge to judge of the actions of the Supreme. Whether God will accept the penitent sinner or not cannot be asserted, for He is an absolute Sovereign, above all law. (Sale, from Ibn Khaldun; Die Mu'taziliten oder die Freidenker in Islam, von H. Steiner. 1865: Zur-Geschichte Abu'l-Hasan al-ash'arish, von W. Spitta, 1876: De Strijd over het Dogma in den Islam tot op El-ash'ari, door Dr,M. Th. Houtsma, Leiden, 1875; and Exposen de la Refore de l'Islamisme, by M.A.F. Mehren Leiden, 1878.)
'ASHARAH MUBASHSHARAH
"The ten who received glad tidings." Ten of the most distinguished of Muhammad's. followers, whose certain entrance into Paradise he is said to have foretold. They are Abu Bakr,' 'Umar, Usman, 'Ali, Talhah, az-Zubair'.Abdu 'r-Rahman, Sa'd-ibn- Abu-Waqqas, Sa'id ibn Zaid, Abu 'Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrih. (Mishkat, book xxiv. c. xx., part ii.) Muhammad declared it presumption for anyone to count upon an entrance into heaven with absolute certainty, but he made an exception in favour of these ten distinguished persons.
Thursday, February 4, 2010
'ASHARAH MUBASHSHARAH
"The ten who received glad tidings." Ten of the most distinguished of Muhammad's. followers, whose certain entrance into Paradise he is said to have foretold. They are Abu Bakr,' 'Umar, Usman, 'Ali, Talhah, az-Zubair'.Abdu 'r-Rahman, Sa'd-ibn- Abu-Waqqas, Sa'id ibn Zaid, Abu 'Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrih. (Mishkat, book xxiv. c. xx., part ii.) Muhammad declared it presumption for anyone to count upon an entrance into heaven with absolute certainty, but he made an exception in favour of these ten distinguished persons.
ASHABU 'S-SUFFAH
"The sitters on the bench" of the temple at Makkah. They are thus described by Abu l-Fida: "They were poor strangers, without friends or place of abode, who claimed the promises of the Apostle of God and implored his protection. Thus the porch of the temple became their mansion, and thence they obtained their name. Muhammad went to meals, he used to call some of them to partake with him; and he selected others to eat with his companions."
ASHABU 'L-KAHF
"The Companions of the Cave," i.e. the Seven Sleepers, mentioned in the Suratu 'l-kahf, or Chapter xviii of the Qur'an. The story, as told by early Christian writers, is given by Gibbon (Rise and Fall, Chapter xxxi.). When the Emperor Decius persecuted the Christians, seven noble youths of Ephesus are said to have concealed themselves in a cave in the side of a mountain, where they were doomed to perish by the tyrant, who gave orders that the entrance should be firmly secured with a pile of huge stones. They immediately fell into a deep slumber, which was miraculously. prolonged, without injuring the powers of life, during a period of 187 years. This popular tale, which Muhammad must have heard when he drove his camels to the fairs of Syria, is introduced into the Qur'an as a divine revelation.
AL-ASHABU 'L-FIL
"The Companions of the Elephant." A term used in the Chapter of the Elephant, or the cvth Surah :- "Hast thou not seen how thy Lord dealt with the companions of the elephant? Did He not cause their stratagem to miscarry? And He sent against them birds in flocks small stones did they hurl down upon them, and he made them like stubble eaten down!"
This refers to the army of Abrahah, the Christian king of Abyssinia and Arabia Fe1ix, said to have been lost, in the year of Muhammad's birth, in an expedition against Makkah for the purpose of destroying the Ka'bah. This army was cut off by small pox, and there is no doubt, as the Arabic word for small-pox also means "small stones," in reference to the hard gravelly feeling of the pustules, what is the true interpretation of the fourth verse of this Surah, which, like many other poetical passages in the Qur'an, has formed the starting point for the most puerile and extravagant legends.
This refers to the army of Abrahah, the Christian king of Abyssinia and Arabia Fe1ix, said to have been lost, in the year of Muhammad's birth, in an expedition against Makkah for the purpose of destroying the Ka'bah. This army was cut off by small pox, and there is no doubt, as the Arabic word for small-pox also means "small stones," in reference to the hard gravelly feeling of the pustules, what is the true interpretation of the fourth verse of this Surah, which, like many other poetical passages in the Qur'an, has formed the starting point for the most puerile and extravagant legends.
Wednesday, February 3, 2010
ASHAB
pl. of Sahib. The Companions or Associates of Muhammad.
The term used for a single companion is sahabi. Concerning the title of "Companion," there is considerable controversy as to the persons to whom it can be applied. Sa'id ibn al-Musaiyab reckoned none a "Companion" but those who had been a year or more with Muhammad, and had gone on a warlike expedition with him. Some say that everyone who had attained puberty, had embraced Islam, and had seen the Prophet, was a "Companion" even though he had attended Muhammad but an hour. Others, however, affirm that none could be a "Companion" unless Muhammad chose him and he chose Muhammad, and he adhered to the Prophet at all times. The general opinion is that every one who embraced him, saw the Prophet, and accompanied him, even for a short time, was a "Companion".
It is related that the Prophet marched to Makkah with 10,000 Muslims, to Hunain with 12,000, and that 40,000 accompanied him on the farewell pilgrimage. The number of the "Companions" at his death is said to have been 144,000.
In point of merit, the refugees (Muhajirun) are more worthy than the auxiliaries (Ansar); but by way of precedence the auxiliaries are more worthy than the later refugees.
The "Companions", have been arranged in thirteen classes, which are given by Abu '1-Fida as follows:- I. Those who first embraced Islam, such as Khadijah, 'Ali, Zaid, and Abu Bakr, and those who did not delay till be had established his mission. II. The Companions who believed in him after his mission had been fully established, amongst whom was 'Umar. III. Those who fled to Abyssinia. IV. The first companions of 'Aqabah, who preceeded the Auxiliaries. V. The second Companions of 'Aqabah. VI. The third Companions of 'Aqabah, who were seventy. VII. The refugees who went to the Prophet after his flight, when he was at Quba, before the erection bf the temple. VIII. The soldiers of the great battle of Badr. IX Those who joined Islam between Badr and Hudaibiyah. X. Those who took the oath of fealty under the acacia tree at Hudaibiyah. XI. Those who Joined after the treaty of Hudaibiyah, but before the conquest. XII. Those that embraced Islim on the day of conquest. XIII. Those who were children in the time of the Prophet, and had seen him.
Muhammad frequently commended the "Companions," and spoke of their excellences and virtues, a chapter in the Traditions being devoted to this subject (Mishkat, xxiv. c. xiii.) He is related to have said, "My companions are like stars by which roads are found, for which ever companion you follow you will find the right road."
The term used for a single companion is sahabi. Concerning the title of "Companion," there is considerable controversy as to the persons to whom it can be applied. Sa'id ibn al-Musaiyab reckoned none a "Companion" but those who had been a year or more with Muhammad, and had gone on a warlike expedition with him. Some say that everyone who had attained puberty, had embraced Islam, and had seen the Prophet, was a "Companion" even though he had attended Muhammad but an hour. Others, however, affirm that none could be a "Companion" unless Muhammad chose him and he chose Muhammad, and he adhered to the Prophet at all times. The general opinion is that every one who embraced him, saw the Prophet, and accompanied him, even for a short time, was a "Companion".
It is related that the Prophet marched to Makkah with 10,000 Muslims, to Hunain with 12,000, and that 40,000 accompanied him on the farewell pilgrimage. The number of the "Companions" at his death is said to have been 144,000.
In point of merit, the refugees (Muhajirun) are more worthy than the auxiliaries (Ansar); but by way of precedence the auxiliaries are more worthy than the later refugees.
The "Companions", have been arranged in thirteen classes, which are given by Abu '1-Fida as follows:- I. Those who first embraced Islam, such as Khadijah, 'Ali, Zaid, and Abu Bakr, and those who did not delay till be had established his mission. II. The Companions who believed in him after his mission had been fully established, amongst whom was 'Umar. III. Those who fled to Abyssinia. IV. The first companions of 'Aqabah, who preceeded the Auxiliaries. V. The second Companions of 'Aqabah. VI. The third Companions of 'Aqabah, who were seventy. VII. The refugees who went to the Prophet after his flight, when he was at Quba, before the erection bf the temple. VIII. The soldiers of the great battle of Badr. IX Those who joined Islam between Badr and Hudaibiyah. X. Those who took the oath of fealty under the acacia tree at Hudaibiyah. XI. Those who Joined after the treaty of Hudaibiyah, but before the conquest. XII. Those that embraced Islim on the day of conquest. XIII. Those who were children in the time of the Prophet, and had seen him.
Muhammad frequently commended the "Companions," and spoke of their excellences and virtues, a chapter in the Traditions being devoted to this subject (Mishkat, xxiv. c. xiii.) He is related to have said, "My companions are like stars by which roads are found, for which ever companion you follow you will find the right road."
AL'-ASARU 'SH-SHARIF
The sacred relic. A hair of either the beard or mustachios of Muhammad, or a foot-print of the Prophet. One of these sacred relics (a hair of his beard) is exhibited in the great mosque at Delhi, another in a mosque in Cashmere.
ASAR
Relating; handing down by tradition. Generally used for a Hadis, related by one of the Companions, as distinguished from one of the Prophet's own.
Tuesday, February 2, 2010
ASAF
The wazir or prime minister of Solomon. Alluded to in the Qur'an, Surah xxvii. 40, as "He with whom was knowledge of the scripture." Muhammadan commentators say he was the son of Barkhiya.
'ARSH
The term used in the Qur'an for the throne of God Surah ix., 131, "He is the Lord of the mighty throne." Husaini, the commentator, says the throne has 8,000 pillars, and the distance between each pillar is 3,000,000 miles.
ARSH
(1.) A lega1 term for compensation.
(2.) A mulct; a fine; particularly that which is paid for shedding of blood.
(3.) A gift for conciliating the favour of a judge; a bribe.
(4.) Whatever a purchaser receives from a seller after discovering a fault in the article bought.
(2.) A mulct; a fine; particularly that which is paid for shedding of blood.
(3.) A gift for conciliating the favour of a judge; a bribe.
(4.) Whatever a purchaser receives from a seller after discovering a fault in the article bought.
ARMS
The Sale of. The sale of armour or warlike stores to rebels, or in their camp, is forbidden, because selling arms into the bands of rebels is an assistance to defection. But it is not forbidden to sell the materials for making arms to such persons (Hamiton's Hidayah, vol. ii. 225.)
ARK OF THE COVENANT
The Hebrew word for Ark is (i.e.) a chest, a coffer.
(Chald. Arabic. )
See Qur'an Surah ii. 249, "The sign of his (Saul's) kingdom is that there shall come unto you the ark (Tabut); in it shall be security (or the Shechinah, sakinah Heb. ) from your Lord, and the. relics of what the family of Moses and the family of Aaron left; the angels shall hear it." Jalalu 'd-din' says this ark contained the images of the prophets, and we sent down from heaven. to Adam, and at length came to the Israelites, who put great confidence therein, and continually carried it in front of their army, till it was taken by the Amalekites. But on this occasion the angels brought it back in the sight of all the people, and placed it at the feet of Saul (Talut), who was thereupon unanimously received as king.
(Chald. Arabic. )
See Qur'an Surah ii. 249, "The sign of his (Saul's) kingdom is that there shall come unto you the ark (Tabut); in it shall be security (or the Shechinah, sakinah Heb. ) from your Lord, and the. relics of what the family of Moses and the family of Aaron left; the angels shall hear it." Jalalu 'd-din' says this ark contained the images of the prophets, and we sent down from heaven. to Adam, and at length came to the Israelites, who put great confidence therein, and continually carried it in front of their army, till it was taken by the Amalekites. But on this occasion the angels brought it back in the sight of all the people, and placed it at the feet of Saul (Talut), who was thereupon unanimously received as king.
ARK, NOAH'S
It is mentioned in the history of the Deluge, as recorded in the Qur'an, in two places - Surah xi. 39, "Build the ark under our eye and after our revelation," and Surah xiii 27. "There is also supposed to be an allusion to the ark in Surah lxxvi. 41. "And a sign to them is that we bare their offspring in the laden ship."
Al- Baizawi says that Noah was two years building the ark, which was 300 cubits long, 50 wide, and 30 bread which was made of Indian plane-tree; that it consisted of three storeys, the lowest for beasts, the middle for men and women (who were separated from each other), and the highest for birds.
The ark is said to have rested on the mountain al-Judi.
Al- Baizawi says that Noah was two years building the ark, which was 300 cubits long, 50 wide, and 30 bread which was made of Indian plane-tree; that it consisted of three storeys, the lowest for beasts, the middle for men and women (who were separated from each other), and the highest for birds.
The ark is said to have rested on the mountain al-Judi.
'ARIYAH
(1) A loan for the use of anything of which Qarz cannot be made: e.g. the loan of a horse is Ariyah; the loan of money is Qarz.
(2) A gift of which the following in an example : - A person makes a gift to another of the dates of a palm-tree in his garden; but having afterwards some, doubt of the propriety of that person coming daily to his garden where his family usually are, and being at the same time unwilling to depart from his promise, or to retract his gift, he gives some of the dates that have already been pulled in lieu of those upon the tree. (Baillie's Law of Sale. p. 300.)
(2) A gift of which the following in an example : - A person makes a gift to another of the dates of a palm-tree in his garden; but having afterwards some, doubt of the propriety of that person coming daily to his garden where his family usually are, and being at the same time unwilling to depart from his promise, or to retract his gift, he gives some of the dates that have already been pulled in lieu of those upon the tree. (Baillie's Law of Sale. p. 300.)
'ARIYAH
A kind of sale permitted in Islam, namely, when a person computes what quantity of fruit there is on a tree and sells it before it is plucked. (Mishkat, xii. c. v.)
Monday, February 1, 2010
ARCHITECTURE
The term Saracenic is usually applied by English writers to Muhammadan architecture. But though the style may be traced to the Arabians, they cannot themselves be considered the inventors of it. They had, in fact, no distinctive style of their own when they made their rapid conquests, but adapted existing styles of architecture to meet the religious and national feelings of the Muslims.
Muhammad built a mosque at al-Madinah, but it was an exceedingly simple structure, and he left no directions in the Qur'an or in the Traditions on the subject.
The typical varieties of the earlier Muhammadan architecture are those which appeared in Spain and in Egypt; its later form appeared in Constantinople. The oldest specimen of Saracenic architecture in Spain is the mosque of Cordova, which now serves as the cathedral of the city. It was commenced by the Khalifah 'Abdu 'r-Rahman, 786 A.D. with the avowed intention that it should be the finest mosque in the world, and Byzantine architects are said to have been, specially invited to superintend its construction.
The earliest of the Muhammadan buildings in Egypt, of which any portions still remain, is the Mosque of 'Amr at old Cairo, begun about A.D. 642, but greatly altered or rebuilt about sixty years later.
On the capture of Constantinople, St. Sophia was converted by the Muslim conquerors into their chief Mosque, and made their architectural model. The older Saracenic style, as seen at Cordova and old Cairo, continued to be the basis of the new, but it was modified throughout by Byzantine influence. In Persia we may clearly trace in Muhammadan buildings the older Persian type, and in India the Saracenic architects showed the same pliancy in adopting the styles of the various peoples amongst whom they settled. It thus happens (says Fergusson, in his History of Indian Architecture) that we have at least twelve or fifteen different styles of Muhammadan architecture in Central Asia and in India.
A striking and distinctive feature in early Muhammadan architecture is the horse-shoe arch, which in time gives way to a cusped or scalloped arch, strictly so termed, the outline being produced by intersecting semi-arches. Another variety of Saracenic arch is the circular-headed and stilted form. The pillars are commonly or exceedingly slender proportions, almost to apparent unsocurity; but owing to the style of the embellishment, this lightness of particular forms tends to heighten the general luxuriance Some have imagined that this element of slenderness in regard to pillars indicates a tent origin of the style. This tent-like character has been further kept up by concave ceilings and cupolas, emblazoned with painting and gilding. Decorations composed of animal and human figures, being interdicted by Muhammadan law [PICTURES] are not found in Saracenic architecture but their geometrical patterns exhibit singular beauty and complexity, inexhaustible variety of combinations, and a wonderful degree of harmonious intricacy, arising out of very simple elements. Lattice or open trellis work is another fertile source or embellishment, and is similar to the tracery met with in Gothic buildings. Another characteristic of Saracenic style is that of the dome. For part domes occur, in mosques and tombs, and are of Byzantine origin. Minarets are also a special feature in Muhammadan mosques, and contribute much to the picture of these buildings. They are found in mosques of the later Saracenic style (See Fergusson's Indian and Eastern Architecture, Mr. Owen Jones's Alhambra Palace, Hersemer's Arabische Bauverzierengen)
Muhammad built a mosque at al-Madinah, but it was an exceedingly simple structure, and he left no directions in the Qur'an or in the Traditions on the subject.
The typical varieties of the earlier Muhammadan architecture are those which appeared in Spain and in Egypt; its later form appeared in Constantinople. The oldest specimen of Saracenic architecture in Spain is the mosque of Cordova, which now serves as the cathedral of the city. It was commenced by the Khalifah 'Abdu 'r-Rahman, 786 A.D. with the avowed intention that it should be the finest mosque in the world, and Byzantine architects are said to have been, specially invited to superintend its construction.
The earliest of the Muhammadan buildings in Egypt, of which any portions still remain, is the Mosque of 'Amr at old Cairo, begun about A.D. 642, but greatly altered or rebuilt about sixty years later.
On the capture of Constantinople, St. Sophia was converted by the Muslim conquerors into their chief Mosque, and made their architectural model. The older Saracenic style, as seen at Cordova and old Cairo, continued to be the basis of the new, but it was modified throughout by Byzantine influence. In Persia we may clearly trace in Muhammadan buildings the older Persian type, and in India the Saracenic architects showed the same pliancy in adopting the styles of the various peoples amongst whom they settled. It thus happens (says Fergusson, in his History of Indian Architecture) that we have at least twelve or fifteen different styles of Muhammadan architecture in Central Asia and in India.
A striking and distinctive feature in early Muhammadan architecture is the horse-shoe arch, which in time gives way to a cusped or scalloped arch, strictly so termed, the outline being produced by intersecting semi-arches. Another variety of Saracenic arch is the circular-headed and stilted form. The pillars are commonly or exceedingly slender proportions, almost to apparent unsocurity; but owing to the style of the embellishment, this lightness of particular forms tends to heighten the general luxuriance Some have imagined that this element of slenderness in regard to pillars indicates a tent origin of the style. This tent-like character has been further kept up by concave ceilings and cupolas, emblazoned with painting and gilding. Decorations composed of animal and human figures, being interdicted by Muhammadan law [PICTURES] are not found in Saracenic architecture but their geometrical patterns exhibit singular beauty and complexity, inexhaustible variety of combinations, and a wonderful degree of harmonious intricacy, arising out of very simple elements. Lattice or open trellis work is another fertile source or embellishment, and is similar to the tracery met with in Gothic buildings. Another characteristic of Saracenic style is that of the dome. For part domes occur, in mosques and tombs, and are of Byzantine origin. Minarets are also a special feature in Muhammadan mosques, and contribute much to the picture of these buildings. They are found in mosques of the later Saracenic style (See Fergusson's Indian and Eastern Architecture, Mr. Owen Jones's Alhambra Palace, Hersemer's Arabische Bauverzierengen)
ARAZI
Lit. "lands."; the sale of lands. Tombs are not included in the sale of lands. A place or station for casting the harvest is not considered to be amongst the rights and advantages of land, and therefore does not enter into the sale of it. (Baillie's Law of Sale, pages 54, 65.) [LAND.]
'ARAFAT
or 'Arafah. The "Mount of Recognition," situated twelve miles from Makkah; - the place where, the pilgrims stay on the ninth day of the pilgrimage, and recite the mid-day and afternoon prayers, and hear the Khutbah or sermon. Hence it is a name given to the ninth day of the month Zu 'l-Hijjah. Upon the origin of the name given to this mountain, Burton says, "The Holy Hill owes its name to the following legend : - When our first parents forfeited heaven for eating wheat, which deprived them of their primeval purity, they were cast down upon earth. The serpent descended upon Ispahan, the peacock at Cabul; Satan at Bilbays (others say Semnan or Seistan), Eve upon 'Arafat, and Adam at Ceylon (Sarandib). The latter, determining to seek his wife, began a journey, to which the earth owes its present mottled appearance. Wherever our first father placed his foot, which was large, a town afterwards arose; and between the strides will always be country Wandering for many years, he came to the Mountain of Mercy, where our common mother was continually calling upon his name, and their recognition of each other gave the place the name of 'Arafah."
'ARAFAH
The vigil of the 'Ida 'l-Asha, or Feast of Sacrifice, when the pilgrims proceed to Mount 'Arafat. ['IDU L-AZHA.]
AL-A'RAF
(1) The partition between heaven and hell. described in the Qur'an, Surah vii. 44, "Betwixt the two (heaven and hell) there is a partition; and al-A'raf are men who know all by their marks; and they shall cry out to the inhabitants of Paradise, 'Peace be upon you!' (but) they have not (yet) entered it, although they so desire. And when their sight is turned towards the dwellers in the Fire, they say, '0 our Lord, place us not with the unjust people."' According to Sale, al-A'raf is derived from the verb 'arafa, which signifies "to distinguish between things, or to part them"; though some commentators give another reason for the imposition of this name, because, say they, those who stand on this partition will know and distinguish the blessed from the damned by their respective marks or characteristics: and others say the word properly intends anything that is elevated, as such a wall of separation must be supposed to be. Some imagine it to be a sort of limbo for the patriarchs and prophets, or for the martyrs and those who have been most eminent for sanctity. Others place here those whose good and evil works are so equal that they exactly counterpoise each other, and therefore deserve neither reward nor punishment; and these, say they, will on the last day be admitted into Paradise, after they shall have performed an act of adoration, which will be imputed to them as a merit, and will make the scale of their good works to preponderate. Others suppose this intermediate space will be a receptacle for those who have gone to war, without their parents' leave, and therein suffered martyrdom; being excluded from Paradise for their disobedience, and escaping hell because they are martyrs. (2) The title of Sarah vii. (3) A term used by Sufi mystics to express a condition of the mind and soul when meditating on the existence of God in all things.
ARABIC LEXICONS
The first Arabic lexicon is that which is generally ascribed to al-Khalil, and entitled Kitibu'l 'Ain. The following are the most celebrated Arabic dictionaries composed after the 'Am.
The Jamharah, by Ibn Duraid, died A.H. 321.
The Tahzib, by al-Azhari died A.H. 370.
The Muhit, by the Sahib Ibn 'Abbad, died A.H. 885.
The Mujunal, by Ibn Faris died A.H. 306.
The Sihah, by al-Jauhari, died A.H. 398.
The Jami', by al-Qa'zzaz, died A.H. 412.
The Mu'ab, by Abu Ghalib, died A.H. 436.
The Muhkam, by Ibn Sidah, died A.H. 458.
The Asas, by ar-Zamakhshari, died A.H. 538.
The Mughrib, by al-Mutarrizi, died A.H. 610.
The 'Uhab, by as-Sighani, died A.H., 660.
The Lisanu'l-'Arab, by, Ibn Mukarram, died A.H. 711.
The Tahzibu 't-Tahzib, by Mahmud at-Tanakhi, died A.H. 723.
The Misbah, by Ahmad Ibn Muhammad al-Faiyumi, compiled A.H. 734.
The Mughni '-Labib, by Ibn Hishim, died A.H. 761.
The Qarmus, by al-Faizuzabadi, died A.H. 816.
The Sahah (says Mr. Lane in his Preface to his Dictionary), is among the books of lexicology like the Sahih of Bukhari amongst the books of traditions; for the point on which turns the title to reliance is not the copiousness of the collection, but the condition of genuineness and correctness.
Two well-known dictionaries, compiled in modern times in Hindustan, are the Ghiyasu '1- Lughat, by Maulawi Ghiyasu 'd-din of Rampur, and the Muntaha 'l-'Arab, by 'Abdu 'r- Rahim ibn 'Abdu '1-Karim of Safipur. These are both Arabic and Persian lexicons.
The Arabic-Latin dictionary of Jacob Golius, was printed at Leyden, A.D. 1658; that of Freytag at Halle, A.D. 1830-35.
The Arabic-English and English-Arabic dictionaries extant are ---
Richardson's Persian-Arabic-English, A.D. 1777.
Richardson's English-Persian-Arabic, A.D. 1810.
Francis Jehnson's Persian-Arabic-English, A.D. 1852.
Catafago's Arabic-English and English-Arabic, new edition, 1873.
Lane's Arabic-English, A.D. 1863 to 1885 imperfect.
Dr. Badger's English-Arabic, A.D. 1881.
Dr. Steingass's English-Arabic, A.D. 1882.
The Jamharah, by Ibn Duraid, died A.H. 321.
The Tahzib, by al-Azhari died A.H. 370.
The Muhit, by the Sahib Ibn 'Abbad, died A.H. 885.
The Mujunal, by Ibn Faris died A.H. 306.
The Sihah, by al-Jauhari, died A.H. 398.
The Jami', by al-Qa'zzaz, died A.H. 412.
The Mu'ab, by Abu Ghalib, died A.H. 436.
The Muhkam, by Ibn Sidah, died A.H. 458.
The Asas, by ar-Zamakhshari, died A.H. 538.
The Mughrib, by al-Mutarrizi, died A.H. 610.
The 'Uhab, by as-Sighani, died A.H., 660.
The Lisanu'l-'Arab, by, Ibn Mukarram, died A.H. 711.
The Tahzibu 't-Tahzib, by Mahmud at-Tanakhi, died A.H. 723.
The Misbah, by Ahmad Ibn Muhammad al-Faiyumi, compiled A.H. 734.
The Mughni '-Labib, by Ibn Hishim, died A.H. 761.
The Qarmus, by al-Faizuzabadi, died A.H. 816.
The Sahah (says Mr. Lane in his Preface to his Dictionary), is among the books of lexicology like the Sahih of Bukhari amongst the books of traditions; for the point on which turns the title to reliance is not the copiousness of the collection, but the condition of genuineness and correctness.
Two well-known dictionaries, compiled in modern times in Hindustan, are the Ghiyasu '1- Lughat, by Maulawi Ghiyasu 'd-din of Rampur, and the Muntaha 'l-'Arab, by 'Abdu 'r- Rahim ibn 'Abdu '1-Karim of Safipur. These are both Arabic and Persian lexicons.
The Arabic-Latin dictionary of Jacob Golius, was printed at Leyden, A.D. 1658; that of Freytag at Halle, A.D. 1830-35.
The Arabic-English and English-Arabic dictionaries extant are ---
Richardson's Persian-Arabic-English, A.D. 1777.
Richardson's English-Persian-Arabic, A.D. 1810.
Francis Jehnson's Persian-Arabic-English, A.D. 1852.
Catafago's Arabic-English and English-Arabic, new edition, 1873.
Lane's Arabic-English, A.D. 1863 to 1885 imperfect.
Dr. Badger's English-Arabic, A.D. 1881.
Dr. Steingass's English-Arabic, A.D. 1882.
ARABIC
Lisanu -'l -'l'Arab; Lughatu '1-'Arab. The classical language of Arabia is held to be the language of the Qur'an, and of the Traditions of Muhammad and by reason of its incomparable excellence is called al lughah, or "the language." See Qur'an; Surah xvi. 105, "They say, Surely a person teacheth him [i.e. Muhammad]. But the tongue of him at whom they hint is foreign, while this [i.e. the Qur'an] is plain Arabic.")
This classical language is often termed, by the Arabians themselves, the language of Ma'add, and the language, of Munzar, and is a compound of many sister dialects, very often differing among themselves, which were spoken throughout the whole of the Peninsula before the religion of Muhammad incited the nation to spread its conquering armies over foreign Countries. Before that period, feuds among the tribes, throughout the whole extent of their territory, had prevented the blending of their dialects into one uniform language; but this effect of disunion was counteracted in a great measure by the institution of the sacred months, in which all acts of hostility were most strictly interdicted, and by the annual pilgrimage, and the yearly fair held at 'Ukaz, at which the poets of the rations tribes contended for the meed of general admiration.
Qatadah says that the Quraish tribe used to cull what was most excellent in the dialects of Arabia, so that their dialect became the best of all. This assertion, however, is not altogether correct, for many of the children of the tribe of Quraish, in the time of Muhammad, were sent into the desert to be there nursed, in order to acquire the utmost chasteness of speech. Muhammad himself was went to be brought up among the tribe of Sa'd ibn Bakr ibn Hawazin, descendants of Muzar, bat not in the line of Quraish; and he is said to hare urged the facts of his being a Quraish, and having also grown up among the tribe of Sa'd, as the grounds of his claim to be the most chaste in speech of the Arabs. Certain it is that the language of Mwadd was characterised by the highest degree of perfection, copiousness, and uniformity, in the time of Muhammad, although it afterwards declined.
The language of the Qur'an is universally acknowledged to be the most perfect form of Arabic speech. At the same time we must not forget that the acknowledged claims of the Qur'an to be the direct utterance of the Divinity have made it impossible for any Muslim to criticise the work, and it has become the standard, by which other literary competitions have to be judged. (See Lane's Introduction to his Arabic Dictionary, and Palmer's Qur'an.)
This classical language is often termed, by the Arabians themselves, the language of Ma'add, and the language, of Munzar, and is a compound of many sister dialects, very often differing among themselves, which were spoken throughout the whole of the Peninsula before the religion of Muhammad incited the nation to spread its conquering armies over foreign Countries. Before that period, feuds among the tribes, throughout the whole extent of their territory, had prevented the blending of their dialects into one uniform language; but this effect of disunion was counteracted in a great measure by the institution of the sacred months, in which all acts of hostility were most strictly interdicted, and by the annual pilgrimage, and the yearly fair held at 'Ukaz, at which the poets of the rations tribes contended for the meed of general admiration.
Qatadah says that the Quraish tribe used to cull what was most excellent in the dialects of Arabia, so that their dialect became the best of all. This assertion, however, is not altogether correct, for many of the children of the tribe of Quraish, in the time of Muhammad, were sent into the desert to be there nursed, in order to acquire the utmost chasteness of speech. Muhammad himself was went to be brought up among the tribe of Sa'd ibn Bakr ibn Hawazin, descendants of Muzar, bat not in the line of Quraish; and he is said to hare urged the facts of his being a Quraish, and having also grown up among the tribe of Sa'd, as the grounds of his claim to be the most chaste in speech of the Arabs. Certain it is that the language of Mwadd was characterised by the highest degree of perfection, copiousness, and uniformity, in the time of Muhammad, although it afterwards declined.
The language of the Qur'an is universally acknowledged to be the most perfect form of Arabic speech. At the same time we must not forget that the acknowledged claims of the Qur'an to be the direct utterance of the Divinity have made it impossible for any Muslim to criticise the work, and it has become the standard, by which other literary competitions have to be judged. (See Lane's Introduction to his Arabic Dictionary, and Palmer's Qur'an.)
ARABIA
Biladu 'l-'Arab, Jaziratu 'l-'Arab, 'Arabistan. The peninsula bearing, amongst the Arabs, these names is the country situated on the east of the Red Sea, and extending as far as the Persian Gulf. The word probably signifies signifies a "barren place" "desert". (Heb).
Ptolemy divides Arabia into three parts, Arabia Petraea, Arabia Felix, and Arabia Deserta; but Arabian geographers divide it into Tihamah, al-Hijaz, an.Najd, al 'Aruz, and al- Yaman.
The races which have peopled Arabia are divided into three sections, al-' Arabu 'l-Ba'i-dah, 'al-'Arabu '1-'Aribah, and al-'Arabu 'l-Musta'ribah.
Ptolemy divides Arabia into three parts, Arabia Petraea, Arabia Felix, and Arabia Deserta; but Arabian geographers divide it into Tihamah, al-Hijaz, an.Najd, al 'Aruz, and al- Yaman.
The races which have peopled Arabia are divided into three sections, al-' Arabu 'l-Ba'i-dah, 'al-'Arabu '1-'Aribah, and al-'Arabu 'l-Musta'ribah.
'AQILAR
The relatives who pay the expiatory mulet for manslaughter or any other legal fine. They must be relatives descended from one common father. (Hamilton's Hidayah yol. iv. pages 449, 452; Baillie's Law of Sale, p. 214.)
'AQIB
"A successor or deputy" "One who comes last." Al-Aqib is a title given to Muhammad as being styled "the last of the prophets."
AL-'AQABAH
A sheltered glen hear Mini, celebrated as the scene of the two pledges, the first and second pledge of al-'Aqabah. The first pledge was made by ten men of the tribe of Khazraj and ten of Aus when they plighted their faith to Muhammad thus: -- "We will not worship, any but one God; we will hot steal; nor commit adultery; nor kill our children; nor will we slander our neighbors; and we will obey the Prophet of God." The date assigned to this pledge by Sir W. Muir is April 21, A.D. 621. The second pledge was a few months afterwards when seventy three men and two women came forward, one by one, and took an oath of fealty to the Prophet. Muhammad named twelve of the chief of these men, and said : " Moses chose from amongst his people twelve 1eaders. Ye shall be sureties for the rest, even as were the Apostles of Jesus; and I am surety for my people. And the people answered, Amin, So be it." (Muir's Life of Mahomet, vol. ii., pp.216, 232.)
APOSTLE
Arabic rasul . hawari . The term rasul (apostle or messenger) is applied to Muhammad, that of hawari being used in tho Qur'an (Surah iii. 4,5; Surah iv. 111, 112; Surah lxi., 14) for the Apostles of Jesus. The word hawari seems to be derived from the Ethiopic hara, "to go"; hawarya; "apostle"; although, according to al-Baiziwi, the commentator, it is derived from hawira, "to be white," in Syriac, hawar, was given to the disciples of Jesus, be says, on account of their purity of life and sincerity, or because they were respectable men and wore white garments. In the Traditions (Mishkat, book i.e. vi part 2) hawari is used for the followers of all the prophets. [PROPHETS.]
AP0STASY FROM ISLAM
Arabic irtidad . According to Muslim law, a male apostate, or Murtadd, is liable to be put to death if he continue obstinate in his error; a female apostate is not subject to capital punishment, but she may be kept in confinement until she recants. (Hamilton's Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 227.) If either the husband or wife apostatize from the faith of Islam, a divorce takes place ipso facto; the wife is entitled to her whole dower, but no sentence of divorce is necessary. If the husband and wife both apostatize together, their marriage is generally allowed to continue, although Imam Zufar says it is annulled. But if after their joint apostasy, either husband or wife were simply to return to Islam, then the marriage would be dissolved. (Hamilton's Hidayah, vol. ii, p. 188)
According to Abu Hanifah, a male apostate is disabled from selling or otherwise disposing of his property. But Abu Yusuf and Imam Muhammad differ from their master up to this point, and consider a male apostate to be as competent to exercise every right as if he were still in the faith (Hidayah, vol ii., p. 235).
If a boy under age apostatize, he is not to be put to death, but will be imprisoned until he came to full age, when, if he continue in the state of unbelief, he must be put to death. Neither lunatics nor drunkards are held to be responsible for their apostasy from Islam. (Hidayah, vol. ii. 246.). If a person upon compulsion becomes an apostate, his wife is not divorced, nor are his lands forfeited. If a person become a Musalman upon compulsion, and afterwards apostatize, he is not to be put to death. (Hiddyah, vol. iii., 467.)
The will of a male apostate is not valid, but that of a fema1e apostate is valid. (Hidayah, vol. iii., 537.)
'Ikrimah relates that some apostates were brought to the Khalifah 'Ali, and he burnt them alive, but Ibn 'Abbas heard of it and said that the Khalifah had not acted rightly for the Prophet had said, "Punish not with God's punishment (i.e. fire), but whosoever changes his religion, kill him with the sword." (Sahihu l'-Bukhari).
According to Abu Hanifah, a male apostate is disabled from selling or otherwise disposing of his property. But Abu Yusuf and Imam Muhammad differ from their master up to this point, and consider a male apostate to be as competent to exercise every right as if he were still in the faith (Hidayah, vol ii., p. 235).
If a boy under age apostatize, he is not to be put to death, but will be imprisoned until he came to full age, when, if he continue in the state of unbelief, he must be put to death. Neither lunatics nor drunkards are held to be responsible for their apostasy from Islam. (Hidayah, vol. ii. 246.). If a person upon compulsion becomes an apostate, his wife is not divorced, nor are his lands forfeited. If a person become a Musalman upon compulsion, and afterwards apostatize, he is not to be put to death. (Hiddyah, vol. iii., 467.)
The will of a male apostate is not valid, but that of a fema1e apostate is valid. (Hidayah, vol. iii., 537.)
'Ikrimah relates that some apostates were brought to the Khalifah 'Ali, and he burnt them alive, but Ibn 'Abbas heard of it and said that the Khalifah had not acted rightly for the Prophet had said, "Punish not with God's punishment (i.e. fire), but whosoever changes his religion, kill him with the sword." (Sahihu l'-Bukhari).
AL-ANSAR
"The Helpers," a term used for the, early converts of al-Madinah, but when all the citizens of al-Madinah were ostensibly converted to Islam, they were all named Ansar, while those Muslims who accompanied the Prophet from Makkah to al-Madinah were called Muhajirun, or exiles. (Muir's Life of Mahomet. vol iii. p.26.) [MUHAMMAD.]
AL-'ANKABUT
"The Spider The title of the xxixth Surah, in which there is a passing reference to this insect in the 40th verse : "The likeness for those who take to themselves guardians besides God is the likeness of the spider who but buildeth her a house; but truly the frailest of all houses surely is the house of the spider."
ANIMALS
Arabic Hayawan. According, to the Qur'an, Surah xxiv., 44, "God hath created every animal of water." "An idea," says Rodwell, "perhaps derived from Gen. i. 20, 21."
It is believed that at the Resurrection the irrational animals will be restored to life, that they may be brought to judgment, and then be annihilated. See Qur'an, Surah vi 38, "No kind of beast is there on the earth, nor fowl that flieth with its wings, but is a community like you: nothing have We passed over in the book (of the Eternal decrees): then unto their Lord shall they be gathered."
It is believed that at the Resurrection the irrational animals will be restored to life, that they may be brought to judgment, and then be annihilated. See Qur'an, Surah vi 38, "No kind of beast is there on the earth, nor fowl that flieth with its wings, but is a community like you: nothing have We passed over in the book (of the Eternal decrees): then unto their Lord shall they be gathered."
ANGEL
Arabic mal'ak or malak , Persian Firishtah "It is believed," says Ibn Majah, "that the angels are of a simple substance (created of light), endowed with life, and speech, and reason; and that the difference between them, the Jinn, and Shaittans is a difference of species. Know," he adds, "that the angels are sanctified from carnal desire and the disturbance of anger: they disobey not God in what He hath commanded them, but do what they are commanded. Their food is the celebrating of His glory; their drink, the proclaiming of His holiness; their conversation, the commemoration of God, Whose name be exalted; their pleasure, His worship, and they are created in different forms and with different powers." (Arabian Nights, Lane's edition, Notes to the Introduction, p.27.)
Four of them are archangels, or, as they are called in Arabic Karubiyun (Cherubim), namely, Jabra'il or Jibril, (Gabriel), the angel of revelations; Mika'il or Mikal, (Michael), the patron of the Israelites; Israfil, the angel who will sound the trumpet at the last day; and 'Izra il, or 'Azrai il the angel of death. Angels are said to be inferior in dignity to human prophets, because all the angels were commanded to prostrate themselves before Adam (Surah ii. 32). Every believer is attended by two recording angels, called the Kiramu 'l-katibin, one of whom records his good actions, and the other his evil actions. There are also two angels, called Munkar and Nakir, who examine all the dead in their graves. The chief angel who has charge of hell is called Malik, and his subordinates are named Zabaniyah, or guards. A more extended account of these angels will be found under their particular titles.
The angels intercede for man: "The angels celebrate the praise of their Lord, and, ask forgiveness for the dwellers on earth." (Surah xlii. 3.) They also act as guardian angels: "Each hath a succession of angels before him and behind him, who watch over him by God's behest." (Surah xiii. 12.) "Is it not enough for you that your Lord aideth you with three thousand angels sent down from on high)?" (Surah iii. 120.) "He is the Supreme over His servants, and sendeth forth guardians who watch over you, until, when death overtaketh any one of you, our messengers receive him and fail not." (Surah ii. 61.)
There are eight angels who support the throne of God, "And the angels shall be on its sides, and over them on that day eight shall bear up the throne of thy Lord." (Surah lxix. 17). Nineteen have charge of hell. "Over it are nineteen. None but angels have I made guardians of the fire." (Surah lxiv 30, 31.)
The names of the guardian angels given in the book on Exorcism (da'wah), entitled the Jawahiru 'l-Khamsah, are Israfil, Jibra'il, Kalkail, Darda il, Durba 'il, Raftma'il, Sharka'il, Tankafil, Isma'il, Sarakika'il, Kharura'il, Tata'il, Ruva'il, Hula'il, Hamwakil, 'Itra'il, Amwakil, 'Amra'll, 'Azra'il, Mika'il, Mahka'il, Harta'il, 'Ata'il, Nura'il, Nukha'il. [EXORCISM.]
Four of them are archangels, or, as they are called in Arabic Karubiyun (Cherubim), namely, Jabra'il or Jibril, (Gabriel), the angel of revelations; Mika'il or Mikal, (Michael), the patron of the Israelites; Israfil, the angel who will sound the trumpet at the last day; and 'Izra il, or 'Azrai il the angel of death. Angels are said to be inferior in dignity to human prophets, because all the angels were commanded to prostrate themselves before Adam (Surah ii. 32). Every believer is attended by two recording angels, called the Kiramu 'l-katibin, one of whom records his good actions, and the other his evil actions. There are also two angels, called Munkar and Nakir, who examine all the dead in their graves. The chief angel who has charge of hell is called Malik, and his subordinates are named Zabaniyah, or guards. A more extended account of these angels will be found under their particular titles.
The angels intercede for man: "The angels celebrate the praise of their Lord, and, ask forgiveness for the dwellers on earth." (Surah xlii. 3.) They also act as guardian angels: "Each hath a succession of angels before him and behind him, who watch over him by God's behest." (Surah xiii. 12.) "Is it not enough for you that your Lord aideth you with three thousand angels sent down from on high)?" (Surah iii. 120.) "He is the Supreme over His servants, and sendeth forth guardians who watch over you, until, when death overtaketh any one of you, our messengers receive him and fail not." (Surah ii. 61.)
There are eight angels who support the throne of God, "And the angels shall be on its sides, and over them on that day eight shall bear up the throne of thy Lord." (Surah lxix. 17). Nineteen have charge of hell. "Over it are nineteen. None but angels have I made guardians of the fire." (Surah lxiv 30, 31.)
The names of the guardian angels given in the book on Exorcism (da'wah), entitled the Jawahiru 'l-Khamsah, are Israfil, Jibra'il, Kalkail, Darda il, Durba 'il, Raftma'il, Sharka'il, Tankafil, Isma'il, Sarakika'il, Kharura'il, Tata'il, Ruva'il, Hula'il, Hamwakil, 'Itra'il, Amwakil, 'Amra'll, 'Azra'il, Mika'il, Mahka'il, Harta'il, 'Ata'il, Nura'il, Nukha'il. [EXORCISM.]
AL-ANFAL
"The Spoils." The title of the viiith Surah which was occasioned by a dispute regarding the spoils taken at the battle of Badr, between the young men who had fought and the old men who had stayed with the ensigns.
ANAS IBN MALIK
The last of the Companions of Muhammad, and the founder of the sect of the Malikis He died at al-Basrah, A.H. 93 aged 103.
ANANIYAH
From ana, "I" "Egotism" Al-ananiyah is a term used by the Sufis to express the existence of man.
AL-AN'AM
"The Cattle." The title of the vith Surah, in verse 137 of which some superstitious customs of the Meccans, as to certain cattle, are incidentally mentioned.
AMULETS
Arabic Hama'il , "anything suspended"; Ta'wiz, "a refuge"; Hijab, "a cover."
Amulets, although of heathen origin, are very common in Muhammadan countries. The following are used as amulets: (1) a small Qur'an, encased in silk or leather, and suspended from the shoulder; (2) a chapter or verse of the Qur'an, written on paper and folded in leather or velvet; (3) some of the names or God, or the numerical power (see ABJAD) of those names; (4) the names of prophets, celebrated saints, or the numerical power of the same; (5) the Muhammadan creed, engraven on stone or silver. The chapters of the Qur'an generally selected for Amulets are: Surahs i., v., xviii., xxxvi., xliv., lv., lxvii., lxxviii. Five verses known as the Ayatu 'l-Hifz, or "verses of protection," are also frequently inscribed on Amulets. They are Surahs ii. 256; xii. 64; xiii. 12; xv. 17; xxxvii. 7. [AYATU 'L-HIFZ.]
These charms are fastened on the arm or leg, or suspended round the neck as a protection against evil. They are also put on houses and animals, and, in fact, upon anything from which evil is to be averted. Strictly, according to the principles of Islam, only the names of God, or verses from the Qur'an, should he used for amulets. Information regarding the formation of magic squares and amulets will be found in the article on Exorcism. [EXORCISM, DA'WAH.]
Amulets, although of heathen origin, are very common in Muhammadan countries. The following are used as amulets: (1) a small Qur'an, encased in silk or leather, and suspended from the shoulder; (2) a chapter or verse of the Qur'an, written on paper and folded in leather or velvet; (3) some of the names or God, or the numerical power (see ABJAD) of those names; (4) the names of prophets, celebrated saints, or the numerical power of the same; (5) the Muhammadan creed, engraven on stone or silver. The chapters of the Qur'an generally selected for Amulets are: Surahs i., v., xviii., xxxvi., xliv., lv., lxvii., lxxviii. Five verses known as the Ayatu 'l-Hifz, or "verses of protection," are also frequently inscribed on Amulets. They are Surahs ii. 256; xii. 64; xiii. 12; xv. 17; xxxvii. 7. [AYATU 'L-HIFZ.]
These charms are fastened on the arm or leg, or suspended round the neck as a protection against evil. They are also put on houses and animals, and, in fact, upon anything from which evil is to be averted. Strictly, according to the principles of Islam, only the names of God, or verses from the Qur'an, should he used for amulets. Information regarding the formation of magic squares and amulets will be found in the article on Exorcism. [EXORCISM, DA'WAH.]
AMRIBN AL-'ASI
One of the Companions, celebrated for his conquest of Syria, Palestine and Egypt, in the reigns of Abu Bakr and 'Umar. He died (according to an Nawawi) A.H. 43.
AMIRU 'L-MU'MININ
"The Commander of the Believers." A title which was first given to Abdu 'llah ibn Jahsh after his expedition to Nakhlah and which was afterwards assumed by the Khalifahs (first by 'Umar) and the Sultans of Turkey. [KHALIFAH.]
AMIRU 'L-HAJJ
The chief of the pilgrimage. "The officer in charge of the pilgrims to Makkah. [HAJJ.]
AMIR
Anylicé Emir. "A ruler; a commander; a chief: a nobleman." It includes the various high offices in a Muslim state; the Imam, or Khalifah, being styled Amiru 'l Umara', the ruler of rulers; and Amiru 'l-Mu'minun, the commander, of the believers.
AMINAH
Muhammad's mother. She was the wife of 'Abdu 'llah, and the daughter of Wabh ibn 'Abdi Manaf. She died and was buried at al-Abwa, a place midway between Makkah and al-Madinah, before her son claimed the position of a Prophet.
AMIN
Hebrew . An expression of assent said at the conclusion of prayers, very much as in our Christian worship. It is always used at the conclusion of the Suratu 'l-Fatihah, or first chapter of the Qur'an.
Amin,"Faithful." Al-Amin is the title which it is said was given to Muhammad when a youth, on account of his fair and honourable bearing, which won the confidence of the people.
Aminu 'l-Bait, one who wishes to perform the pilgrimage to Makkah.
Amin,"Faithful." Al-Amin is the title which it is said was given to Muhammad when a youth, on account of his fair and honourable bearing, which won the confidence of the people.
Aminu 'l-Bait, one who wishes to perform the pilgrimage to Makkah.
'AMAL-NAMAH
Persian word for Sahifatu '1-A 'mal or record of actions kept by the recording angels. [SAHIFATU 'L-A-AMAL KIRAMU 'L-KATIBIN.]
ALWAH
pl. of Lauh "The tables (of the Law). Mentioned in the Qur'an, Surah vii. 142, "We wrote for him (Moses) upon the Tables (al-Alwah) a monition concerning every matter."
Muslim divines are not agreed as to the number either of the tables, or of the Commandments. The commentators Jalalain say they were either seven or ten. [TEN COMMANDMENTS.]
Muslim divines are not agreed as to the number either of the tables, or of the Commandments. The commentators Jalalain say they were either seven or ten. [TEN COMMANDMENTS.]
ALMSGIVING
The word generally used for alms is Sadaqah, or that which manifests righteousness; the word zakat, or purification, being specially restricted to the legal alms. [ZAKAT.] Sadaqatu 'l-Fitr are the offerings given on the Lesser Festival. The duty of alnisgiving is very frequently enjoined in the Qur'an, e.g. Surah ii. 274-5, "What ye expend of good (i.e. of well- gotten wealth), it shall be paid to you again, and ye shall not be wronged. (Give your alms) unto the poor who are straitened in God's way and cannot traverse the earth. ... Those who expend their wealth by night and by day, secretly and openly, they shall have their hire with their Lord."
The following are some of the sayings of Muhammad on the subject of almsgiving, as they occur in the Traditions;- "The upper hand is better than the lower one. The upper hand is the giver of alms, and the lower hand is the poor beggar." "The best of alms are those given by a man of small means, who gives of that which he has earned by labour, and gives as much as he is able."
"Begin by giving alms to your own relatives."
"Doing justice between two people is alms; assisting a man on his beast is alms; good words are alms." "A camel lent out for milk is alms ; a cup of milk every morning and evening is alms." "Your smiling in your brother's face is alms; assisting the blind is alms." "God says, Be thou liberal, thou child of Adam that I may be liberal to thee." (See Mishkat; Matthew's edition, vol. i. p. 429.)
The following are some of the sayings of Muhammad on the subject of almsgiving, as they occur in the Traditions;- "The upper hand is better than the lower one. The upper hand is the giver of alms, and the lower hand is the poor beggar." "The best of alms are those given by a man of small means, who gives of that which he has earned by labour, and gives as much as he is able."
"Begin by giving alms to your own relatives."
"Doing justice between two people is alms; assisting a man on his beast is alms; good words are alms." "A camel lent out for milk is alms ; a cup of milk every morning and evening is alms." "Your smiling in your brother's face is alms; assisting the blind is alms." "God says, Be thou liberal, thou child of Adam that I may be liberal to thee." (See Mishkat; Matthew's edition, vol. i. p. 429.)
ALLAHU AKBAR
"God is great," or "God is most great." An ejaculation which is called the Takbir. It occurs frequently in the liturgical forms, and is used when slaying an animal for food. [TAKBIR.]
AL - 'ALIM
One of the ninety-nine special names of God. It frequently occurs in the Qur'an, and means "The Wise One."
'ALIM
pl. 'ulama' A learned man. The term usually includes all religious teachers, such as Imams, Muftis, Qazis, and Maulawies; and in Turkey it denotes their political party led by the religious teachers.
ALIF LAM MIM
The Arabic letters , corresponding to A. L. M. which occur at the commencement of six Surahs, namely Su'ratu 'l-Baqarah (ii), Suratu 'Ali 'Imran (iii.), Suratu 'l-'Ankabut (xxix.), Suratu 't-Rum (xxx.), Suratu Luqman (xxxi), and Suratu 's-Sijdah (xxxii.). Muhammad never explained the meaning of these mysterious letters, and consequently they are a fruitful scarce of perplexity to learned commentators. Jalalu 'd-din gives an exhaustive summary of the different views in his Itqan (p. 470). Some suppose they stand for the words Allah "God"; Latif, "gracious"; Majid, "glorious." Others say they stand for Ana 'llu a'lamu, "I am the God who knoweth." Others maintain that they were not meant to be understood, and that they were inserted by the Divine command without explanation in order to remind the reader that there were mysteries which his intellect would never fathom.
ALIF
The letter Alif is a monogram frequently placed at the head of letters, prescriptions, &C. It is the initial letter of the word Allah, "God."
ALI
The son of Abu Talib, and a cousin - gorman to Muhammad who adopted him as his son. He married Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad, and had by her three sons, Hasan, Hussein, and Muhassin. He was the fourth Khalifah, and reigned from A.H. 25 to A.H. 40. He was struck with a poisoned sword by Ibn Muljam, at al-Kufab, and died after three days aged fifty-nine years. The Shi'ahs hold that, on the death of Muhammad, 'Ali was entitled to the Khalifate, and the respective claims of Abu Bakr, 'Umar, and 'Usman on the one hand, and of 'Ali on the other, gave rise to the Shi'ah schism. 'Ali is surnamed by the Arabs Asadu 'llah, and by the Persians Sher-i- Khuda, i.e. "The Lion of God." {SHI'AH.]
AL-HAMDIU-LI'LLAH
"Praise belongs to God." An ejaculation which is called Tahmul and which occurs at the commencement of the first chapter of the Qur'an. It is used as an ejaculation of thanksgiving - "Thank God!" It is very often recited with the addition of Rabbi 'l-'alamin. "Lord of the universe." [TAHMID.]
AL-HAMD
"Praise" A title given to the first Surah, so called because its first word is Al-Hamd. This chapter is also called Fatihah, which terms is used by modern Muslims for the Surah when it is said for the benefit of the dead. Al-hamd its more usual title. [FATIHAD.]
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
Mentioned in the Qur'an as Zu' l-Qarnain i.e. a "He of the two horns" with which he is represented on his coins. (Surah xviii., 82.) He seems to have been regarded by Muhammad as one invested with a divine commission: "Verily we established his power upon earth"; but commentators are not agreed whether to assign to him the position of a Prophet. [ZU' L-QARNAIN]
ALCHEMY
Arabic Kimiya. According to the Kashfu z-zunu, in loco, learned Muslims are not agreed an to the existence of this occult science, nor are they of one opinion as to its lawfulness, even if it should exist.
'ALAQ
"Congealed blood." The title of the xcvith Surah, the first first five verses of which are generally allowed to be the earliest portion of the Qur'an.
'ALAMATU 'S-SA'AH
"The signs of the hour, i.e. the signs of the time of the Resurrection and of the Day of Judgment. The title of a section of the Traditions. (Mishkat, xxiii., c. 3.) [RESURRECTION.]
'ALAMATU 'N-NUBUWAH
"The signs of Prophecy." A term used for the supposed miracles and other proofs of the mission of Muhammad. The title of a chapter in the Traditions. (Mishkat, xxi. c. vi.)
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