The universe; world; condition, state of being.
'Alamu 'l-arwh The world of spirits
'Alamu 'l-khalq The world; this life
'Alamu 'I-baqi The future state
'Alamu 'I-a'zamah The highest heaven
'Alamu 'sh-shahadah The visible world
'Alamu 'l-ghaib The invisible world
'Alamu 'l-ma' qul The rationale world
The four mystic stages of the Sufis are 'Alamu 'n-nasut The present world
'Alamu 'l-malakut The state of angels
'Alamu 'l jabarut The state of power
'Alamu 'l-lahut The state of absorption into the Divinity
[SUFIISM.]
Tuesday, January 26, 2010
'ALAM
A standard or ensign. A term used for the flags and standards paraded during the Muharram. [MUHARRAM, STANDARDS.]
AL-A'LA
"The Most High." The title of the lxxxviith Surah of the Qur'an, in the second verse of which the word occurs: "The name of thy Lord the most high is celebrated."
AKHUNDZADAH
The son of Akhund. A title of respect given to the sons or descendants of celebrated religious teachers. [AKHUND.]
AKHUND
A maulawi; a teacher. A title of respect given to eminent religious teachers. One of the most celebrated Muhammadan teachers of modem times was the "Akhund of Swat," who died A.D. 1875. This great religious leader resided in the village of Saidu, in the district of Swat, on the northwest frontier of India.
AKHLAQ
The plural of Khulq. Natures, dispositions, habits, manners The general term for books on morality, e.g. Akhlaq-i-Jalali, Akhlaq-i-Mushini, the name of a dissertation on Ethics by Husain Wa 'iz Kashifi, A.H. 910, which has been translated into English by the Rev. H.G. Keene (WH Allen & Co).
AKHIR- I -CHAHAR - I - SHAMBAM .
The last Wednesday of the month of Safar. It is observed as a feast in commemoration of Muhammad's having experienced some mitigation of his last illness, and having bathed. It was the last time he performed the legal bathing, for he died on the twelfth day of the next month. In some parts of Islam it is customary, in the early morning of this day to write verses of the Qur'an known as the Seven Solams (q.v.), and then wash off the ink and drink it as a charm against evil. It is not observed by the Wahhabis nor is its observance universal in Islam.
AJAL
The appointed time of death, said to be ordained by God from the first. Qur'an, Surah. xxxv. 44, "He respites them until the appointed time. When their appointed time comes, verily God looks upon His servants." [DEATH.]
AHZAB
"Confederates." The title of the xxxiiird Surah of the Qur'an which is said to hare been written when al-Madinah was besieged by a confederation of the Jewish tribes with the Arabs of Makkah. A.H. 5.
AHMAD
The name under which Muhammad professes that Jesus Christ foretold his coming. Vide Qur'an, Surah lxi. 6, "And remember when Jesus the son of Mary said 'O children of Israel! of a truth I am God's Apostle to you to confirming the law which was given before me, and to announce an apostle that shall come after me, whose name shall be Ahmad."' Muhammad had, no doubt, heard that Our Lord had promised a Paraclatos , John xvi.7. This title, understood by him, probably from the similarity of Sound, as equivalent to Periclytos , he applied to himself with reference to his own name Muhammad, the praised or glorified one. Muir thinks that in some imperfect Arabic translation of the Gospel of St. John, the word may have been translated Ahmad, or praised. (Life of Mahomet, vol. i., 17.)
AHLU' L-KITAB
Lit. "The people of the book." A term used in the Qur'an for Jews and Christians, as believers in a revealed religion. Some Sects of the Shi'ahs include the Majusi (Magi) under this term.
AHLU'L-BAIT
"The people of the house." A term used in the Qur'an (Surah xxxiii. 33), and in the Hadis (Mishkat, xxiv. 21), for Muhammad's house hold.
AHADIYA
Unity, concord. Al-Ahadiyah is a term used by Sufi mystics to express a condition of the mind. completely absorbed in a meditation on the Divine Unity. (See 'Abda 'r-Razzaq's; Dictionary of the Technical Terms of the Sufis. Sprenger's edition)
AGENT
Arabic wakil . One legally appointed to act for another. For the Muhammadan law regarding the appointment of agents to transact business, or to negotiate marriages, see Hamilton's Hidiyah, vol. iii. p. 1; Baillie's Digest Hanifi Code, p. 75: Imamiyah Code, p. 29. The author of the Hidayah says, "It is lawful for a person to appoint another his agent for the settlement, in his behalf, of every contract which he might lawfully have concluded himself, such as sale, marriage, and so forth ; and he then proceeds to lay down rates for guidance in such matters at great length. A woman who remains in privacy and is not accustomed to go into Court, ought, according to the saying of Abu Bakr, to appoint an agent and not appear herself. A slave or a minor may be appointed agent for a free man.
AFU
Lit. "erasing, canceling. The word is generally used in Muhammadan books for pardon and forgiveness. It occurs eight times in the Qur'an. e.g Surah ii. 286, "Lord, make us not to carry what we have not strength for, but forgive us and pardon us and have mercy on us." Surah iv 46, "Verily God pardons and forgives.
Al' Afu is one of the ninety-nine special names. of God. It means "one who erases or cancles;" "The Eraser (of sins)." See Qur'an. Surah iv. 51.
Al' Afu is one of the ninety-nine special names. of God. It means "one who erases or cancles;" "The Eraser (of sins)." See Qur'an. Surah iv. 51.
AFFLICTION
Arabic huzn, ghamm . The benefits of affliction are frequently expressed in both the Qur'an and Traditions. For example : Surah ii., 150, "We will try you with something of fear, and hunger, and loss of wealth, and souls and fruit; but give good tidings to the patient who, when there falls on them a calamity, say, 'Verily we are God's and verily to Him we return'." This formula is always used by Muhmmadans in any danger or sudden calamity, especially in the presence of death.
In the traditions (see Miskatu 'l-Masabih), Muhammad is related to have said, "A Muslim is like unto standing green corn, which sometimes stands erect, but is sometimes cast down by the wind." "No affliction befalls a servant of God but on account of the which he commits."
In the traditions (see Miskatu 'l-Masabih), Muhammad is related to have said, "A Muslim is like unto standing green corn, which sometimes stands erect, but is sometimes cast down by the wind." "No affliction befalls a servant of God but on account of the which he commits."
AFFINITY
Arabic Qurabah . The prohibited degrees hurmah with regards to marriages are as follows: - Mother, daughter, paternal aunt, maternal aunt, brother's or sister's daughter, grandmother, granddaughter, mother-in-law, step mother, daughter-in-law, granddaughter-in-law. Nor can any man marry any who stand in any of these relationships from fosterage. The marriage of two sisters at the same time is forbidden, but the marriage of a deceased wife's sister is allowed. Marriage with a deceased brother's wife is very common in Muslim countries, such marriages being held to be a very honourable means of providing for a brother's widow. The marriage of cousins is also considered most desirable, as being the means of keeping families and tribes together. The passage of the Qur'an on the subject of affinity, is as follows (Surah v.27)
"Marry not women whom your fathers have married: for this is a shame, and hateful, and an evil way :-though what is past (i.e. in times of ignorance) may be allowed.
"Forbidden to you are your mothers, and your daughters, and your sisters, and your aunts, both on the father and mother's side, and your nieces on the brother and sister's side, and your foster-mothers, and your foster-sisters, and the mothers of your wives, and your step-daughters who are your wards, born of your wives to whom ye have gone in: (but if ye have not gone in unto them, it shall be no sin in you to marry them;) and the wives of your sons who proceed out of your loins; and ye may not have two sisters; except where it is already done. Verily, God is Indulgent, Merciful!
"Forbidden to you also are married women, except those who are in your hands as slaves: This is the law of God for you. And it is allowed you, beside this, to seek out wives by means of your wealth, with immodest conduct, and without fornication. And we give those with whom ye have cohabited their dowry. This is the law. But it shall be no crime in you to make agreements over and above the law. Verily, God is Knowing, Wise!"
"Marry not women whom your fathers have married: for this is a shame, and hateful, and an evil way :-though what is past (i.e. in times of ignorance) may be allowed.
"Forbidden to you are your mothers, and your daughters, and your sisters, and your aunts, both on the father and mother's side, and your nieces on the brother and sister's side, and your foster-mothers, and your foster-sisters, and the mothers of your wives, and your step-daughters who are your wards, born of your wives to whom ye have gone in: (but if ye have not gone in unto them, it shall be no sin in you to marry them;) and the wives of your sons who proceed out of your loins; and ye may not have two sisters; except where it is already done. Verily, God is Indulgent, Merciful!
"Forbidden to you also are married women, except those who are in your hands as slaves: This is the law of God for you. And it is allowed you, beside this, to seek out wives by means of your wealth, with immodest conduct, and without fornication. And we give those with whom ye have cohabited their dowry. This is the law. But it shall be no crime in you to make agreements over and above the law. Verily, God is Knowing, Wise!"
Thursday, January 21, 2010
ADULTERY
Arabic zina' . The term zina' includes both adultery and fornication, but there is a difference in the punishment for these offences. [FORNICATION.]
Adultery is established before a Qazi, either by proof or confession. To establish it upon proof, four witnesses are required. (Qur'an Surah iv, 1.) When witnesses come forward, it is necessary that they should be examined particularly concerning the nature of the offence. When the witnesses shall have borne testimony completely, declaring that "they have seen the parties in the very act of carnal conjunction," the Qazi passes sentence.
A confession of adultery must be made by the person who has committed the sin, at four different times, although, according to the Imam ash-Shifi'i, one confession is sufficient. Some of the doctors hold that if a person retract his confession, his retraction must be credited, and he must be forthwith released.
At the commencement of Muhammad's mission, women found guilty of adultery and fornication were punished by being literally immured - Suratu 'n nisa (iv.) 19, "Shut them up within their houses till death release them, or God makes some way for them. This, however, was cancelled, and lapidation was substituted as the punishment for adultery, and 100 stripes and one year's banishment for fornication.
Adultery is established before a Qazi, either by proof or confession. To establish it upon proof, four witnesses are required. (Qur'an Surah iv, 1.) When witnesses come forward, it is necessary that they should be examined particularly concerning the nature of the offence. When the witnesses shall have borne testimony completely, declaring that "they have seen the parties in the very act of carnal conjunction," the Qazi passes sentence.
A confession of adultery must be made by the person who has committed the sin, at four different times, although, according to the Imam ash-Shifi'i, one confession is sufficient. Some of the doctors hold that if a person retract his confession, his retraction must be credited, and he must be forthwith released.
At the commencement of Muhammad's mission, women found guilty of adultery and fornication were punished by being literally immured - Suratu 'n nisa (iv.) 19, "Shut them up within their houses till death release them, or God makes some way for them. This, however, was cancelled, and lapidation was substituted as the punishment for adultery, and 100 stripes and one year's banishment for fornication.
ADORATION
The acts and postures by which the Muslims express adoration at the time of prayer are similar to those used by the ancient Jews (vide Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, in loco), and consist of Ruku or the inclination of the body, the hands being placed on the knees; and Sujud, or prostration upon the earth, the forehead touching the ground. [PRAYER] The adoration of the black stone at Makkah forms an important feature in the ceremonies of the pilgrimage. [HAJJ.]
ADOPTION.
Arabic Tabanni. An adopted son, or daughter, of known descent, has no right to inherit from his or her, adoptive parents and their relatives, - the filiation of this description being neither recommended nor recognised by Muhammadan law. Such son or daughter is, however, entitled to what may be given under a valid deed in gift or will. In this particular the Muhammadan agrees with the English, and the Hindu with the Roman law. (Tagore Law Lectures, 1873, p.124.)
'ADN
The garden of Eden. Jannatu 'Adu. The garden of perpetual abode. The term is used both for the garden of Eden, in which our first, parents dwelt, and also for a place in celestial bliss. [JANNATU 'AND.]
AL- 'ADL
One of the ninety-nine special names of God. It signifies "the Just." It does not occur in the Qur'an as an attribute of the Divine Being, but it is in the list of attributes given in the Traditions. (Mishkat, book x.)
'ADL
Justice. Appointing what is just; equalising; making of the same weight. Ransom. The word occurs twelve times in the Qur'an, e.g., Surah iv. 128. "Ye are not able, it may be, to act equitably to your wives, even though ye covet it." Surah ii. 44, "Fear the day wherein no soul shall pay any ransom for another soul." Surah ii. 123, " And fear the day when no soul shall pay any ransom for a soul, nor shall an equivalent be received there from, nor any intercession avail; and they shall not be helped." Surah ii. 282. "Write it down faithfully then let his agent dictate faithfully." Surah v. 105, "Let there be a testimony between you when any one of you is at the point of death- at the time he makes his will - two equitable persons from amongst you." Surah vi. 69, "And though it (soul) compensate with the fullest compensation it would not be accepted." Surah v.115, "The words of thy Lord are fulfilled in truth and justice." Surah xvi., 78, "Is he to be hold equal with him who bids what is just, and who is on the right way?" Surah xvi. 92, "Verily God bids you do justice." Surah xlix. 8, "Make peace with them with equity and be just." Surah lxxxii. 8, " Thy generous Lord, who created thee and moulded thee and disposed thee aright."
AD'IYATU 'L-MASURAH
"The prayers handed down by tradition." Those prayers which were said by Muhammad in addition to the regular liturgical prayers. They are found in different sections of the traditions or Ahadis.
'ADIYAT
"Swift horses." The title of the 100th Surah of the Qur'an, the second verse of which is, "By the swift chargers and those who strike fire with their hoofs." Professor Palmer translates it "snorting chargers".
ADAB
Discipline of the mind and manners; good education and good breeding; politeness; deportment; a mode of conduct or behaviour. A very long section of the Traditions is devoted to the sayings of Muhammad regarding rules of conduct, and is found in the Mishkatu '1-Masabih under the title Babu 'l-Adab (book lxii. Matthew's Mishkat It includes - (l) Salutations, (2) Asking permission to enter houses, (3) Shaking hands and embracing, (4) Rising up, (5) Sitting, sleeping and walking, (6) Sneezing and yawning, (7) Laughing, (8) Names, (9) Poetry and eloquence, (10) Backbiting and abuse, (11) Promises, (12) Joking, (13) Boasting and party spirit. The traditional sayings of these subjects will be found under their respective titles. 'Ilmu 'l-Adab is the science of Philology.
ADAM
Arabic, Adam. The first man. Reckoned by Muslim writters as the first prophet, to whom ten portions of scripture (sahifah) are said to have been revealed. He is distinguished by the title of Safiyu'llab, or, the "chosen one of God." He is mentioned in the Qur'an in in the following Surahs, which are taken from Mr. Lane's Selections (new edition, by Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole; Trübnor, 1879) with the commentary in italics
"Remember, O Muhammad, when thy Lord said unto the angels, I am about to place in the earth a vicegerent to act for me in the execution of my ordinances therein, namely, Adam, they said, Wilt Thou place in it one who will corrupt in it by disobediences, and will shed blood (as did the sons of El-Jann, who were in it; where ore, when the acted corruptly, God sent to then, the angles, who drove them away to the islands and the mountains), when we [on the contrary] celebrate the divine protection, occupying, ourselves with Thy praise, and extol Thy holiness? Therefore we are more worthy of the vicegerency.- God replied, Verily I know that which ye know not, as to the affair of appointing Adam vicegerent, and that among his posterity will be the obedient and the rebellious, and the just will be manifest among them. And he created Adam from the surface of the earth, taking a handful of every colour that it comprised, which was kneaded with various waters; and he completely formed into it the soul so it became an animated sentient being. And he taught Adam the names of, all things, infusing the knowledge of them into his heart. Then He showed them (namely, the things) to the angels, and said, Declare unto me the names of these things, if ye say truth in your assertion that I will not create any more knowing than ye, and that ye are more worthy of the vicegerency. They replied, [We extol]
"Remember, O Muhammad, when thy Lord said unto the angels, I am about to place in the earth a vicegerent to act for me in the execution of my ordinances therein, namely, Adam, they said, Wilt Thou place in it one who will corrupt in it by disobediences, and will shed blood (as did the sons of El-Jann, who were in it; where ore, when the acted corruptly, God sent to then, the angles, who drove them away to the islands and the mountains), when we [on the contrary] celebrate the divine protection, occupying, ourselves with Thy praise, and extol Thy holiness? Therefore we are more worthy of the vicegerency.- God replied, Verily I know that which ye know not, as to the affair of appointing Adam vicegerent, and that among his posterity will be the obedient and the rebellious, and the just will be manifest among them. And he created Adam from the surface of the earth, taking a handful of every colour that it comprised, which was kneaded with various waters; and he completely formed into it the soul so it became an animated sentient being. And he taught Adam the names of, all things, infusing the knowledge of them into his heart. Then He showed them (namely, the things) to the angels, and said, Declare unto me the names of these things, if ye say truth in your assertion that I will not create any more knowing than ye, and that ye are more worthy of the vicegerency. They replied, [We extol]
AD
A tribe located to the south of Arabia, to which the prophet Hud is said to have been sent. See Qur'an, vii., 63:
"And to 'Ad we sent our brother Hud, 'O my people' said he, 'worship God: ye have no other god than Him': Will ye not then fear him?"
"Said the unbelieving chiefs among his people; We certainly perceive that thou art unsound of mind; and we surely deem thee an impostor.'
"He said, 'O my people! It is not unsoundness of mind in me, but I am an Apostle from the Lord of the Worlds.
"The messages of my Lord do I announce to you, and I am your faithful counsellor.
Marvel ye that a warning hath come to you from your Lord through one of yourselves that He may warn you? Remember how he hath made you the successors of the people of Noah, and increased you in tallness of stature. Remember then the favours, of God that it may haply be well with you."
"They said, 'Art thou come to us in order that we may worship one God alone, and leave what our fathers worshipped? Then bring that upon us with which thou threatenest us, if thou be a man of truth."
"He said, 'Vengeance and wrath shall suddenly light on you from your Lord. Do ye dispute with We about names that you and your fathers have given your idols, and for which, God hath sent you down no warranty? Wait ye then, and I too will wait with you."
"And we delivered him, and those who were ,on his side by our mercy, and we cut off, to the last man, those who had treated our signs as lies, and who wore not believers."
Also, Surah lxxxix., 5 : "Hast thou not seen how thy Lord dealt with 'Ad at Iram. adorned with pillars, whose like have not been reared in these lands" [HUD, IRAM.]
"And to 'Ad we sent our brother Hud, 'O my people' said he, 'worship God: ye have no other god than Him': Will ye not then fear him?"
"Said the unbelieving chiefs among his people; We certainly perceive that thou art unsound of mind; and we surely deem thee an impostor.'
"He said, 'O my people! It is not unsoundness of mind in me, but I am an Apostle from the Lord of the Worlds.
"The messages of my Lord do I announce to you, and I am your faithful counsellor.
Marvel ye that a warning hath come to you from your Lord through one of yourselves that He may warn you? Remember how he hath made you the successors of the people of Noah, and increased you in tallness of stature. Remember then the favours, of God that it may haply be well with you."
"They said, 'Art thou come to us in order that we may worship one God alone, and leave what our fathers worshipped? Then bring that upon us with which thou threatenest us, if thou be a man of truth."
"He said, 'Vengeance and wrath shall suddenly light on you from your Lord. Do ye dispute with We about names that you and your fathers have given your idols, and for which, God hath sent you down no warranty? Wait ye then, and I too will wait with you."
"And we delivered him, and those who were ,on his side by our mercy, and we cut off, to the last man, those who had treated our signs as lies, and who wore not believers."
Also, Surah lxxxix., 5 : "Hast thou not seen how thy Lord dealt with 'Ad at Iram. adorned with pillars, whose like have not been reared in these lands" [HUD, IRAM.]
ABU YUSUF
Known also an Ya'qub ibn Ibrahim. Born at Baghdad, A.H. 113. Studied under the Imam Abu Hanifah, and is celebrated, together with the Imam Muhammad and the Imam Zufar, as disciples of the great Imam; from whose opinions, however, the three disciples not unfrequently differ as will be seen upon reference to the Hidayah He died in A.H. 182.
ABU 'UBAIDAH
IBN AL-JARRAH One of the Companions, who was with the Prophet in all his wars, and distinguished himself at the battle of Uhud. He was highly esteemed by Muhammad, who made him one of the 'Asharah al-Mubashsharah, or ten patriarchs of the Muslim faith. He died A.H.18, aged 58.
ABU TALIB
Muhammad's uncle and guardian; the father of Ali. He is believed to have died as he had lived, an unbeliever in the Prophet's mission; for forty years he had been his faithful friend and guardian. He died in the third year before the Hijrah.
ABUSIVE LANGUAGE
is forbidden by the Muslim law, and the offender must be punished according to the discretion of the Qazi. Abu Hanifah says: "If a person abuse a Musalman by calling him an ass or a hog, punishment is not incurred, because these expressions are in no respect defamatory of the person to whom they are used, it being evident that he is neither an ass nor a hog. But some allege that in our times chastisement is inflicted, since, in the modern acceptation, calling a man an ass or a hog is hold to be abuse. Others, again, allege that it is esteemed only to be abuse when the person of whom it is said occupies a dignified position. According to Abu Hanifah, the greatest number of stripes that can be inflicted for abusive language is thirty-nine. (Hamilton's Hidayah, vol. ii., 78.)
Muhammad is related to have said "Abusing a Muslim is disobedience to God, and it is infidelity for anyone to join such an one in religious warfare." (Mishkat, xxii. 2.)
Muhammad is related to have said "Abusing a Muslim is disobedience to God, and it is infidelity for anyone to join such an one in religious warfare." (Mishkat, xxii. 2.)
ABU 'L-QASIM
"The father of Qasim." One of the names of Muhammad, assumed on the birth of his born Qasim, who died in infancy [MUHAMMAD.]
ABU 'L-HUZAIL ZUFAR IBN AL-HUZAIL
Celebrated as the Imam Zufar, and as a contemporary and intimate friend of the great Imam Abu Hanifah. He died at al-Basrah, A.H. 158.
ABU LAHAB
One of the sons of Abu Muttalib, and an uncle to Muhammad. He was a most bitter enemy to the Prophet, and opposed the establishment of Islam to the utmost of his power. His name was 'Abdu '1- Uzza, but he was surnamed by Muhammad, Abu Lahab, "The Father of the Flame." When Muhammad received the command to admonish his relations, he called them all together, and told them he was a warner sent unto them before a grievous chastisement. Abu Lahab rejected his mission, and cried out, "Mayest thou perish! Hast thou called its together for this?" and took up a stone to cast at him; whereupon the cxith Surah of the Qur'an was produced
"Let the hands of Abu Lahab perish, and let himself perish!
His wealth and his gains shall avail him naught.
Burned shall he be at a fiery flame,
And his wife laden with fire wood,
On her neck a rope of palm fibre."
Abu Lahab is said to have died of grief and vexation at the defeat which his friends had received at the battle of Badr, surviving that misfortune only seven days. His body was left unburied for several days.
Zaid and Abu Lahab are the only relatives or friends of Muhammad mentioned by name in the Qur'an.
"Let the hands of Abu Lahab perish, and let himself perish!
His wealth and his gains shall avail him naught.
Burned shall he be at a fiery flame,
And his wife laden with fire wood,
On her neck a rope of palm fibre."
Abu Lahab is said to have died of grief and vexation at the defeat which his friends had received at the battle of Badr, surviving that misfortune only seven days. His body was left unburied for several days.
Zaid and Abu Lahab are the only relatives or friends of Muhammad mentioned by name in the Qur'an.
ABU JAHL
An implacable adversary of Muhammad. His real name was 'Amr ibn Hisham, but he was surnamed by the Muslims, Abu Jahl, or the "Father of Folly." He is supposed to be alluded to in the Qur'an, Surah xxii. 8: - "There is a man who disputeth concerning God without either knowledge or direction." He was a boastful and debauched man, and was killed in the battle of Badr.
ABU HURAIRAH
One of the most constant attendants of Muhammad, who from his peculiar intimacy has related more traditions of the sayings and doings of the Prophet than any other individual. His real name is doubtful, but he was nicknamed Aba Hurairah on account of his fondness for a kitten. He embraced Islam In the year of the expedition to Khaibar, A.H. 7, and died in al-Madinah, A.H. 57 or 59, aged 78.
ABU HANIFAH
Abu Hanifah an-Nu'man is the great Sunni Imam and jurisconsult, and the founder of the Hanifi sect. His father, Sibit, was a silk dealer in the city of al-Kufah, and it is said his grandfather, Zuta, was a native of Kabul. He was born at al-Kafuh, A.H. 80 (A.D. 700), and died at Baghdad, A.H. 150. He is regarded as the great oracle of Sunni jurisprudence, and his doctrines, with those of his disciples, the Imam Abu Yusuf and the Imam Muhammad, are generally received throughout Turkey, Tartary, and Hindustan. It is related that Imam Malik said that the Imam Abu Hanifah was such a logician that, if he were to assert a wooden pillar was made of gold, he would prove it by argument.
ABU DA'UD
Sulaiman Ibn al-Ash'as al-Sijistani; born at al-Basrah A.H. 202, and died A.H. 275. The compiler of one of the six correct books of the Sunni traditions, called Sunnan Abi Da'ud, which contains 4,008 traditions, said to have been carefully collated from 500,000. [TRADITIONS.]
ABU BAKR
Of the origin of his name, there are various explanations. Some think that it means "the father of the maiden," and that he received this title because he was the father of 'Ayishah, whom Muhammad married when she was only nine years old. His original name was 'Abd 'l-Ka'bah (which the Prophet changed into 'Abdu 'llah) Ibn Abi Quhafah. He was the first Khalifah, or successor of Muhammad. [SHI'AH] Muhammadan writers praise him for the purity of his life, and call him as-Siddiq, the Veracious. He only reigned two years, and died August 22nd, A.D. 634.
ABU 'ABDI 'LLAH MUHAMMAD IBN AL-HASAN
Known as Imam Muhummad. Born at Wasit, a city in Arabian Iraq, A.H. 132. He studied under the great Imam Abu Hanifah, and had also studied under Imam Malik for three years. He is celebrated as one of the disciples of the Imam Abu Hanifah, from whom he occasionally differs, as is seen in the Hidiyah. He died at Rai, in Khurasan, where his tomb is still to be seen, A.H. 189.
ABU 'ABDI 'LLAH
Muhammad ibn Isma'il al-Bukhari, the author of the well-known collection of traditions received by the Sunnis. [BUKHARI.]
ABSTINENCE
Arabic Taqwa. Is very frequently enjoined in the Qur'an. The word generally applies to abstinence from idolatry in the first instance but it is used to express a life of piety. An excessive abstinence and a life of asceticism are condemned in the Qur'an, and the Christians are charged with the invention of the monastic life. (Surah lvii. 27.) "As for the monastic life, they invented it themselves." [MONASTICISM, FASTING.]
ABSCONDING OF SLAVES
Arabic Ibaq . An absconded male or female slave is called Abiq, but an infant slave who leaves his home is termed zall a word which is also used for an adult slave who has strayed. The apprehension of a fugitive slave is a laudable act, and the person who seizes him should bring him before the magistrate and receive a reward of forty dirhams. (Hamilton's Hidayah, vol. ii. p 278.)
ABRAHAM. Arabic Ibrahim
One of the six great prophets to whom God delivered special laws. The "Friend of God;' Khalilu'illah, to whom were revealed twenty portions (sahifah) of Scripture.
Abraham is very frequently mentioned in the Qur'an, together with Ishmael and Isaac. The following are - Mr. Lane's selections (giving in italics the remarks of Muslim commentators) -
"Remember when Abraham said to his father Azar (This was the surname of Terah), Dost thouu take images as deities? Verily I see thee and thy people to be in a manifest error. - (And thus, as We showed him the error of his father and his people, did We shew Abraham the kingdom of the heaven and the earth, and [We did so] that he might be of [the number of] those who firmly believe.) And when the night overshadowed him, he saw a star (it is said that it was Venus), [and] he said unto his people who were astrologers, This is my Lord, according to your assertion. - But when it set, he said, I like not those that set. to take them as Lords, since it is not meet for a Lord to experience alteration and change of place, as they are of the nature of accidents. Yet this had no effect upon them. And when he saw the moon rising, he said unto them, This is my Lord.---But when it set, he said Verily it my Lord direct me not (if he confirm me not in the right way), I shall be of the string people --- This was a hint to his people that they were in error; but it had no effect upon them". And when he saw the sun rising, he said. This is my Lord. This is greater than the star and Moon -- But when it set, and the proof, had been rendered more strong to them, yet they desisted not, he said O my people, verily I am clear of the (things) which ye associate with God; namely the images and the heavenly bodies. So they said unto him, What dost thou worship? He answered, Verily I direct my face unto Him who hath created the heavens and the earth following the right religion, and I am not of the polytheists. - And his people argued with him [but] he said, Do ye argue with me respecting God, when He hath directed me, and I fear not what ye
Abraham is very frequently mentioned in the Qur'an, together with Ishmael and Isaac. The following are - Mr. Lane's selections (giving in italics the remarks of Muslim commentators) -
"Remember when Abraham said to his father Azar (This was the surname of Terah), Dost thouu take images as deities? Verily I see thee and thy people to be in a manifest error. - (And thus, as We showed him the error of his father and his people, did We shew Abraham the kingdom of the heaven and the earth, and [We did so] that he might be of [the number of] those who firmly believe.) And when the night overshadowed him, he saw a star (it is said that it was Venus), [and] he said unto his people who were astrologers, This is my Lord, according to your assertion. - But when it set, he said, I like not those that set. to take them as Lords, since it is not meet for a Lord to experience alteration and change of place, as they are of the nature of accidents. Yet this had no effect upon them. And when he saw the moon rising, he said unto them, This is my Lord.---But when it set, he said Verily it my Lord direct me not (if he confirm me not in the right way), I shall be of the string people --- This was a hint to his people that they were in error; but it had no effect upon them". And when he saw the sun rising, he said. This is my Lord. This is greater than the star and Moon -- But when it set, and the proof, had been rendered more strong to them, yet they desisted not, he said O my people, verily I am clear of the (things) which ye associate with God; namely the images and the heavenly bodies. So they said unto him, What dost thou worship? He answered, Verily I direct my face unto Him who hath created the heavens and the earth following the right religion, and I am not of the polytheists. - And his people argued with him [but] he said, Do ye argue with me respecting God, when He hath directed me, and I fear not what ye
ABORTION.
Arabic Isqat. There is no mention of the subject in the Qur'an, but according to the Fatawi 'Alamgiri, (vol. iv. P. 238), it is forbidden after the child is formed in the womb. Muhammad is related to have ordered prayers to be said over an abortion, when supplication should be made for the father and mother, for forgiveness and mercy (Mishkat, v. c. 2.)
ABLUTION
Arabic, wazu, wuzu. Ablution is described by Muhammad as "the half of faith and the key of prayer" (Mishcat, iii. 3c), and is founded on the authority of tho Qur'an, surah v. 8, "O Believers! when ye prepare yourselves for prayer, wash your faces and hands up to the elbows, and wipe your heads and your feet to the ankles."
These ablutions are absolutely necessary as a preparation for the recital of the liturgical form of prayer, and are performed as follows: The worshipper, having tucked up his sleeves a little higher than his elbows, washes his hands three times; then he rinses his mouth three times, throwing the water into it with his right hand. After this, he, with his right hand, throws water up his nostrils, snuffing it up at the same time, and then blows it out, compressing his nostrils with the thumb and finger of the left hand--this being also performed three times. He then washes his face three times, throwing up the water with both hands. He next washes his right hand and arm, as high as the elbow, as many times, causing the water to run along his arm from the palm of the hand to the elbow, and in the same manner he washes the left. Then he draws his wetted right hand over the upper part of his head, raising his turban or cap with his left. If he has a beard, he then combs it with the wetted fingers of his right hand, holding his hand with the palm forwards, and passing the fingers through his beard from the throat upwards. He then puts the tips of his fore-fingers into his ears and twists them round, passing his thumbs at the same time round the back of the ears from the bottom upwards. Next, he wipes his neck with the back of the fingers of both hands, making the ends of his fingers meet behind his neck, and then drawing them forward. Lastly, he washes his feet, an high as the ankles, and passes his fingers between the toes. During this ceremony, which is generally performed in less than three minutes, the intending worshipper usually recites some pious ejaculations or prayers.
These ablutions are absolutely necessary as a preparation for the recital of the liturgical form of prayer, and are performed as follows: The worshipper, having tucked up his sleeves a little higher than his elbows, washes his hands three times; then he rinses his mouth three times, throwing the water into it with his right hand. After this, he, with his right hand, throws water up his nostrils, snuffing it up at the same time, and then blows it out, compressing his nostrils with the thumb and finger of the left hand--this being also performed three times. He then washes his face three times, throwing up the water with both hands. He next washes his right hand and arm, as high as the elbow, as many times, causing the water to run along his arm from the palm of the hand to the elbow, and in the same manner he washes the left. Then he draws his wetted right hand over the upper part of his head, raising his turban or cap with his left. If he has a beard, he then combs it with the wetted fingers of his right hand, holding his hand with the palm forwards, and passing the fingers through his beard from the throat upwards. He then puts the tips of his fore-fingers into his ears and twists them round, passing his thumbs at the same time round the back of the ears from the bottom upwards. Next, he wipes his neck with the back of the fingers of both hands, making the ends of his fingers meet behind his neck, and then drawing them forward. Lastly, he washes his feet, an high as the ankles, and passes his fingers between the toes. During this ceremony, which is generally performed in less than three minutes, the intending worshipper usually recites some pious ejaculations or prayers.
ABJAD
The name of an arithmetical arrangement of the alphabet, the letters of which have different powers from one to one thousand. It is in the order of the alphabet as used by the Jews as far as 400, the six remaining letters being added by the Arabians. The letters spell the words-
abjad hawwaz hutti kalaman
sa'fas qarashut sakhaz zazigh
The author of the Arabic Lexicon, al-Qamus, says that the first six words are the names of celebrated kings of Madyan (Midian), and that the last two words were added by the Arabians. Some say they are the names of the eight sons of the inventor of the Arabic character, Muramir ibn Murra.
'ABID
"A worshipper [of God]." A term generally used for a devout person. The word frequently occurs in the Qur'an: e.g. Surah ii. 132: "The baptism (sibghah) of God! And who is better than God at baptizing? We are the worshippers ('abidun) of God" The word sibghah is translated by Professor Palmer "dye" and "dyeing", but Sale, following the Muslim commentators, al-Baizawi, Jalalu'd-din, aud Husaini, who say it refers to tho Christian rite, translates it "baptism." Others say that it means fitrah or din, the religion of God, with an adaptation to which mankind are created. See Lane's Lexicon. [BAPTISM.]
ABEL. Arabic Habil
In the Qur'an "the two sons of Adam" are called Habil wa Qabil, and the following is the account given of them in that book (Surah V.30-35), together with the remarks of the commentators in italics (as rendered in Mr. Lane's Selections, 2nd ed., p. 53), "Recite unto them the history of the two sons of Adam, namely, Abel and Cain, with truth. When they offered [their] offering to God (Abel's being a ram, and Cain's being produce of the earth), and it was accepted from one of them (that is, from Abel; for fire descended from heaven, and devoured his offering), and it was not accepted from the other, Cain was enraged; but he concealed his envy until Adam performed a pilgrimage, when he said unto his brother, I will assuredly slay thee. Abel said, Wherefore? Cain answered, Because of the acceptance of thine offering to the exclusion of mine. Abel replied, God only accepteth from the pious. If thou stretch forth to me thy hand to slay me, I will not stretch forth to thee my hand to slay thee; for I fear God, the Lord of the worlds. I desire that thou shouldst bear the sin [which thou intendest to commit] against me, by slaying me, and thy sin which thou hast committed before, and thou wilt be of the companions of the fire. - And that is the recompense of the offenders.- But his soul suffered him
'ABDU 'R-RAHMAN IBN'AUF
One of the Companions who embraced Islam at a very early period, and was one of those who fled to Ethiopia. He also accompanied Muhammad in all his battles, and received twenty wounds at Uhud. He died A.H. 32, aged 72 or 75, and was buried at Baqi'u 'l-Gharqad the graveyard of al-Madinah.
'ABDU 'L-QADIR AL-JILANI
The celebrated founder of the Qadiriyah order of darweshes, surnamed Pir-Dastagir. He died and was buried at Baghdad, AH. 561.
'ABDU'L-MUTTALIB
Muhammad's grandfather and his guardian for two years. He died, aged 82, A.D. 578. His sons were 'Abdu 'llah (Muhammad's father), al-Haris az-Zuhair, Abu Talib, Abu Labab, al-'Abbas, and Hamza.
'ABDU 'LLAH IBN SA'D
One of Muhammad's secretaries. It is related that, when Muhammad instructed 'Abdu 'llah to write down the words (Surah xxiii. 12-l4), "We (God) have created man from an extract of clay then we produced it another creation;' 'Abdu 'llah exclaimed, "And blessed be God, the best of creators"; and Muhammad told him to write that down also. Whereupon 'Abdu 'llah boasted that he had been inspired with a sentence which the Prophet had acknowledged to be part of the Qur'an. It is of him that it is written in the Qur'an, Surah vi. 93, "Who is more unjust than he who devises against God a lie, or says - 'I am inspired,' when he is not inspired at all."
'ABDU 'LLAH
The father of Muhammad. He was the youngest son of 'Abdul'l-Mattalib. During the pregnancy of his wife Aminah, he set out on a mercantile expedition to Gaza in the south of Palestine, and on his way back he sickened and died at al-Madinah, before the birth of his son Muhammad (Katibu'l-Wackidi, p. 18; Muir's Life of Mahomet, vol. i. p. 11.)
ABDAL
"Substitutes, pl. of Badal. Certain persons by whom, it is said, God continues the world in existence. Their number is seventy, of whom forty reside in Syria, and thirty elsewhere. When one dies another takes his place, being so appointed by God. It is one of the signs of the last day that the Abdal will come from Syria. (Mishkat xxiii c. 3.) No one pretends to be able to identify these eminent persons in the world. God alone knows who they are and where they are.
ABBASIDES
ABBASIDES Arabic al Abbasiyah
The name of a dynasty of Kalifahs descended from al-'Abbas, the son of 'Abdu 'l-Muttalib, and a paternal uncle of Muhammad. On account of their descent from so near a relation of the Prophet, - the Abbasides had, ever since the introduction of Islam, been very high in esteem amongst the Arabs, and had at an early period begun to excite the jealousy of the Umaiyade Khalifahs, who after the defeat of 'Ali occupied the throne of the Arabian Empire, The Abbasides had for some time asserted their claims to the Khalifate, and in A.D. 746 they commenced open hostilities. In 749 the Abbaside Khalifah Abu 'l-'Abbas, surnamed as-Saffah, "the blood-shedder," was recognized as Khalifah at al-Kalifah, and Marwin II., the last of the Umaiyade Khalifahs, was defeated and slain.
Thirty-seven Khalifahs of the Abbaside dynasty reigned over the Muhammadan empire, extending over the period from A.H. 132 (A.D. 749-50) to A.H. 656 (A.D. 1258).
The names of the Abbaside Khalifahs are:-- Adu 'l-Abbas as-Saffah (A.D. 749), al-Mansur (A.D.754), al-Mahdi (A.D. 775), al-Hadi (A.D. 785), Harun ar-Rashid (A.D. 786), al-Amin (A.D. 809), al-Mamun (A.D.. 815), al-Mu'tasm (A.D. 883), al-Wasiq (A.D. 842), al-Mutawakkil (A.D. 847), al-Mutasir (A.D.861), al-Musta'in (A.D. 862), al-Mu'taaz (A.D. 866), al-Mabtadi (A.D. 869), al-Mu'tamid (A.D. 870), al-Mu'tazid (A.D. 892) al-Muktafi (A.D. 902), al-Muqtadir, (A.D. 908), al-Qahir (A.D. 932), ar-Razi (A.D. 934), al-Muttaqi (A.D. 940), al-Mustaqfi (A.D. 944), al-Muti' (A.D. 945), at-Tai (A.D.974). al-Qadir (A.D.. 994), al-Qaim (A.D. 1081), al Muqtadi (A.D. 1075), al-Mustazhir (A.D. 1094). al-Mustarshid (A.D. 1118), ar-Rishid (A.D. 1135), al-Muqtafi (A.D. 1136), al-Mustanjid (A.D. 1160), al-Mustazi, (A.D. 1170), an-Nasir (A.D. 1180), az-Zahir (A.D. 1225), al-Mustanair (A.D. 1226), al-Musta'sim (A.D. 1242 to A.D. 1258).
In the reign of al-Musta'sim Hulaku, grandson of Jingiz Khan, entered Persia and became Sultan A.D. 1266. In 1258 he took Baghdad and put the Kahlifah al Musta'sim to death. [KHALIFAH]
The name of a dynasty of Kalifahs descended from al-'Abbas, the son of 'Abdu 'l-Muttalib, and a paternal uncle of Muhammad. On account of their descent from so near a relation of the Prophet, - the Abbasides had, ever since the introduction of Islam, been very high in esteem amongst the Arabs, and had at an early period begun to excite the jealousy of the Umaiyade Khalifahs, who after the defeat of 'Ali occupied the throne of the Arabian Empire, The Abbasides had for some time asserted their claims to the Khalifate, and in A.D. 746 they commenced open hostilities. In 749 the Abbaside Khalifah Abu 'l-'Abbas, surnamed as-Saffah, "the blood-shedder," was recognized as Khalifah at al-Kalifah, and Marwin II., the last of the Umaiyade Khalifahs, was defeated and slain.
Thirty-seven Khalifahs of the Abbaside dynasty reigned over the Muhammadan empire, extending over the period from A.H. 132 (A.D. 749-50) to A.H. 656 (A.D. 1258).
The names of the Abbaside Khalifahs are:-- Adu 'l-Abbas as-Saffah (A.D. 749), al-Mansur (A.D.754), al-Mahdi (A.D. 775), al-Hadi (A.D. 785), Harun ar-Rashid (A.D. 786), al-Amin (A.D. 809), al-Mamun (A.D.. 815), al-Mu'tasm (A.D. 883), al-Wasiq (A.D. 842), al-Mutawakkil (A.D. 847), al-Mutasir (A.D.861), al-Musta'in (A.D. 862), al-Mu'taaz (A.D. 866), al-Mabtadi (A.D. 869), al-Mu'tamid (A.D. 870), al-Mu'tazid (A.D. 892) al-Muktafi (A.D. 902), al-Muqtadir, (A.D. 908), al-Qahir (A.D. 932), ar-Razi (A.D. 934), al-Muttaqi (A.D. 940), al-Mustaqfi (A.D. 944), al-Muti' (A.D. 945), at-Tai (A.D.974). al-Qadir (A.D.. 994), al-Qaim (A.D. 1081), al Muqtadi (A.D. 1075), al-Mustazhir (A.D. 1094). al-Mustarshid (A.D. 1118), ar-Rishid (A.D. 1135), al-Muqtafi (A.D. 1136), al-Mustanjid (A.D. 1160), al-Mustazi, (A.D. 1170), an-Nasir (A.D. 1180), az-Zahir (A.D. 1225), al-Mustanair (A.D. 1226), al-Musta'sim (A.D. 1242 to A.D. 1258).
In the reign of al-Musta'sim Hulaku, grandson of Jingiz Khan, entered Persia and became Sultan A.D. 1266. In 1258 he took Baghdad and put the Kahlifah al Musta'sim to death. [KHALIFAH]
ABBAS
The son of 'Abdu l-Muttalib, and consequently the paternal uncle of Muhammad. The, most celebrated of the "Companions," and the founder of the Abbaside dynasty, which held the Khalifate for a period of 509 years, namely, from A.D. 749 to 1258. He died in A.H. 82. His son Ibn-'Abbas was also a celebrated authority on Islamic traditions and law. [IBN ABBAS, ABBASIDES]
ABASA
"He frowned." The title of the lxxxth chapter of the Qur'an. It is said that a blind man, named Abdu'llah ibn Umm Maktum, once interrupted Muhammad in conversation with certain chiefs of Quraish. The Prophet, however, took no notice of him, but frowned and turned away; and in the first verse of this Surah, he is represented as reproved by God for having done so - "He frowned and turned his back, for that the blind man came unto him."
AARON
AARON Arabic Harun .
In Surah xix. 29, the Virgin Mary is addressed as "the Sister of Aaron." [Mary, Moses.]
In Surah xix. 29, the Virgin Mary is addressed as "the Sister of Aaron." [Mary, Moses.]
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